Luxin Zhang 

Life Cycle Assessment of Metal Mailbox 
A case study 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 
  

Vaasa 2023 

School of Technology and Innovation  
Master’s thesis  

Industrial Management  



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UNIVERSITY OF VAASA 
School of Technology and Innovation  
Author:    Luxin Zhang 
Title of the Thesis:  Life Cycle Assessment of Metal Mailbox : A case study 
Degree:    Master of Science in Economics and Business Administration 
Programme:   Industrial Management 
Supervisor:   Petri Helo; Bening Mayanti 
Year:    2023 Pages: 83 

ABSTRACT: 
 

As global concerns about environmental sustainability continue to rise, businesses must 

assess and improve the ecological footprint of their products. This thesis under-takes a 

rigorous Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) study, focusing on Bobi Company's Classic and 

Cargo mailboxes. The primary aim is to discern and quantify the key environ-mental 

impacts encompassing the entire lifecycle of these mailbox products.  

 

The summary of findings encapsulates the key discoveries derived from this 

comprehensive investigation. It showcases how Global Warming Potential (GWP) 

emerges as the paramount environmental impact category for both Classic and Cargo 

mailboxes. Additionally, it highlights specific contributors to GWP, such as steel 

production, transportation, mailbox production, and non-metal materials. The research 

findings indicate that a significant portion of greenhouse gas emissions in the lifecycle 

of Classic mailboxes occurs during the upstream stages, such as raw material extraction 

and transportation. It is noteworthy that the core manufacturing stage exhibits minimal 

pollution and energy consumption, highlighting effective environmental management 

within the manufacturing domain. As for Cargo mailboxes, due to the additional 

transportation required for the core manufacturing stage's painting process, most 

greenhouse gas emissions occur during this phase. This underscores the critical role of 

the core manufacturing stage's processes and transportation choices in determining the 

carbon emissions throughout the product's lifecycle. Corresponding solutions to this 

issue are proposed in this paper. 

 

From a managerial perspective, this research accentuates the critical role of 

environmental sustainability in contemporary business practices. It underscores the 



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importance of proactive measures to mitigate environmental impacts, enhance 

transparency, and meet the growing demand for eco-conscious products. Ultimately, 

this study not only lays the foundation for the creation of an Environmental Product 

Declaration (EPD) report for Bobi Company but also contributes to the broader discourse 

on sustainable business practices in an increasingly environmentally conscious world, 

allowing Bobi Company to enhance its strategic planning and showcase brand value 

more effectively. Moreover, the interpretation of the results and the recommendations 

offered provide valuable insights for the product development process. Lastly, this thesis 

makes a valuable contribution to the domain of metal mailbox products, given the 

limited availability of lifecycle assessment research on such products at present. 

 

Note, this LCA serves as a self-declaration aimed at exploring the environmental aspects 

of products and has not yet obtained certification from an external third-party 

organization. 

 

KEYWORDS: Life cycle aassessment, environmental products declarations, case study, 
mailbox, metal sheet product 

  



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Contents 

1 Introduction ......................................................................................................8 

1.1 Background and purpose ................................................................................... 10 

1.2 Research questions and objectives ..................................................................... 11 

1.3 Scope and Limitations ........................................................................................ 12 

1.4 Research structure ............................................................................................. 14 

2 Literature Review ............................................................................................ 15 

2.1 The need for sustainability in operations and supply chains ................................ 15 
2.1.1 The benefits of integrating sustainability into operations and supply Chains ................... 15 

2.2 Life cycle assessment (LCA) ................................................................................ 17 
2.2.1 Background and history ...................................................................................................... 18 
2.2.2 Theoretical Framework and guidelines .............................................................................. 19 
2.2.3 LCA tool and databases ....................................................................................................... 30 
2.2.4 LCA applications .................................................................................................................. 33 
2.2.5 Limitation ............................................................................................................................ 34 

2.3 Environmental product declaration （EPD ） ..................................................... 35 

2.3.1 Background ......................................................................................................................... 35 
2.3.2 Relationship between LCA and EPD .................................................................................... 37 

2.4 Research studies in the field of metal mailboxes (metal sheet products) ............. 40 

3 Methodology .................................................................................................. 42 

3.1 Research design and approach ........................................................................... 42 

3.2 Data collection and analysis ............................................................................... 43 

3.3 Reliability and Validity ....................................................................................... 43 

4 LCA case study................................................................................................. 45 

4.1 Goal and scope .................................................................................................. 45 
4.1.1 Functional unit .................................................................................................................... 45 
4.1.2 System boundaries .............................................................................................................. 46 
4.1.3 Life cycle stages................................................................................................................... 47 
4.1.4 Other boundaries ................................................................................................................ 47 
4.1.5 System diagram................................................................................................................... 47 
4.1.6 Cut-off rules ........................................................................................................................ 49 
4.1.7 Allocation rules ................................................................................................................... 49 
4.1.8 Data quality ......................................................................................................................... 50 

4.2 Life cycle inventory analysis ............................................................................... 50 

4.3 Life cycle impact assessment .............................................................................. 51 

4.4 Interpretation of results..................................................................................... 52 

5 Results and recommendations ......................................................................... 53 

5.1 Component materials ........................................................................................ 53 

5.2 Impact assessment ............................................................................................ 54 
5.2.1 Bobi Classic mailbox impact assessment ............................................................................ 54 



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5.2.2 Bobi Cargo mailbox impact assessment ............................................................................. 59 

5.3 GWP contributions ............................................................................................ 63 
5.3.1 Bobi Classic mailbox GWP contributions ............................................................................ 64 
5.3.2 Bobi Cargo mailbox GWP contributions ............................................................................. 67 

6 Conclusions ..................................................................................................... 71 

6.1 Summary of findings .......................................................................................... 71 

6.2 Discussion ......................................................................................................... 75 

6.3 Conclusions ....................................................................................................... 77 

References .............................................................................................................. 80 

  



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Figures 
 
Figure 1.Framework for life cycle assessment (from ISO 14040-2006) .......................... 19 

Figure 2.System boundaries (from ISO 14040:2006) ...................................................... 21 

Figure 3. Life cycle inventory template (Cruz-Romero, 2010) ........................................ 23 

Figure 4. Structure of the life cycle impact assessment (LCIA) (Piotrowska et al.,2019) 25 

Figure 5 Example of Ferrochrome EPD impact category indicators and Resource use 

indicators results (Outokumpu) ...................................................................................... 39 

Figure 6. Bobi Cargo mailbox (Bobi, 2023) ..................................................................... 45 

Figure 7. Bobi Classic mailbox (Bobi,2023) ..................................................................... 45 

Figure 8. Bobi Cargo mailbox system diagram ................................................................ 48 

Figure 9. Bobi Classic mailbox system diagram .............................................................. 49 

Figure 10. Compare the proportion of impact category indicators for the Classic mailbox 

in the upstream stage and the core manufacturing stage ............................................. 57 

Figure 11.  Compare the proportion of impact category indicators for the Cargo mailbox 

in the upstream stage and the core manufacturing stage ............................................. 61 

Figure 12.  Bobi Classic mailbox Top 4 GWP contributions ............................................ 66 

Figure 13. Bobi Cargo mailbox Top 4 GWP contributions ............................................... 68 

Figure 14. GWP impact indicator per kilogram of steel.................................................. 72 

Figure 15. Differences in GWP impact indicators between Upstream and Core Phases 73 

 
Tables 
 
Table 1. Classic mailbox materials .................................................................................. 53 

Table 2. Cargo mailbox materials .................................................................................... 54 

Table 3. Classic mailbox impact category indicators ....................................................... 55 

Table 4. Classic mailbox resource use indicators ............................................................ 56 

Table 5. Cargo mailbox impact category indicators ........................................................ 60 

Table 6. Cargo mailbox resource use indicators ............................................................. 60 

Table 7. Classic mailbox GWP contributions ................................................................... 65 

Table 8. Cargo mailbox GWP contributions .................................................................... 68 

 

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file://///Users/leizhang/Documents/芬兰/课程/Thesis/开始写论文/Uwasa_2023_Zhang_Luxin.docx%23_Toc151033302


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Abbreviations 
 

ADP      Abiotic Depletion Potential 

AP          Acidification Potential 

BOM     Bill of Materials 

EP         Eutrophication Potential 

EPD       Environmental Product Declaration 

FW        Net Use of Freshwater 

GWP    Global warming potential 

ISO       International Organization for Standardization 

LCA        Life Cycle Assessment 

LCI         Life Cycle Inventory 

LCIA      Life Cycle Impact Assessment 

NRSF      Non-renewable Secondary Fuels 

PCR      Product Category Rules 

PENRT Primary Energy Resources - Non-renewable Total 

PERT      Primary Energy Resources – Renewable Total 

POCP   Photochemical Oxidant Creation Potential 

RSF          Renewable Secondary Fuels 

WDP     Water deprivation potential 

  



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1 Introduction 

In the contemporary world, where environmental sustainability has become an 

increasingly pressing concern, businesses are challenged not only to meet market 

demands but also to align their practices with eco-conscious values (Curran, 2015). The 

production of goods, from inception to disposal, has a profound impact on the 

environment, making it imperative for companies to assess and report the 

environmental footprint of their products. It is in this context that Life Cycle Assessment 

(LCA) and Environmental Product Declaration (EPD) analyses find their significance 

(Hunsager, Bach, & Breuer, 2014). 

 

Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) is a comprehensive methodology that allows companies to 

evaluate the environmental impacts of their products at every stage of the product 

lifecycle (Curran, 2015). From raw material extraction to manufacturing, transportation, 

product use, and eventual disposal, LCA offers a holistic view of how a product affects 

the environment. It provides quantitative data on a wide range of environmental 

indicators, such as energy consumption, greenhouse gas emissions, resource depletion, 

and more. LCA enables businesses to pinpoint areas of high environmental impact within 

their product lifecycle, guiding them toward more sustainable practices (Curran, 2015). 

 

Environmental Product Declaration (EPD) is a standardized document that summarizes 

the results of an LCA. EPDs are crucial in communicating the environmental performance 

of a product transparently to consumers, regulators, and stakeholders (Hunsager, Bach, 

& Breuer, 2014). They provide easily understandable information about a product's 

environmental attributes, enabling consumers to make informed choices based on 

environmental considerations. EPDs also facilitate compliance with environmental 

regulations and support corporate sustainability goals by promoting eco-friendly 

products (Hunsager, Bach, & Breuer, 2014). 

 

Metal sheet products are widely used in various industries, including construction, 

automotive, manufacturing, and aerospace (Hagelstein, 2009). These products serve as 



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fundamental building blocks for many applications, making their lifecycle assessment 

and analysis crucial for understanding their environmental impacts and identifying 

opportunities for sustainable practices (Hagelstein, 2009). 

 

The growing concern for climate change, dwindling resources, and the need for 

responsible corporate practices has driven companies like Bobi to embrace LCA and EPD. 

These analyses empower businesses with the knowledge to make informed decisions, 

prioritize sustainability, and reduce their environmental footprint. For Bobi, a company 

known for its mailbox products, conducting an LCA study and producing EPDs for their 

Classic and Cargo mailboxes is not merely a matter of compliance; it is a commitment to 

environmental responsibility. 

 

This thesis will study from the metal mailbox LCA of Bobi Company and analyze the life 

cycle assessment and analysis of sheet metal products. One method for quantifying and 

assessing these effects involves the utilization of Lifecycle Assessment (LCA), as outlined 

by Finkbeiner in 2014. LCA comprehensively scrutinizes all environmental dimensions 

and potential consequences associated with a product or service across its entire 

lifecycle. This encompasses activities ranging from the extraction of raw materials, 

through materials processing and manufacturing. This comprehensive view can provide 

insights on the sustainability of products, and where improvements can be made. 

 

Performing a comprehensive lifecycle assessment (LCA) and analysis for metal sheet 

products holds significant importance for various compelling reasons. First and foremost, 

it allows for a thorough examination of the environmental impact associated with metal 

sheet production, encompassing stages like raw material extraction, manufacturing, 

product use, and end-of-life treatment (Cooper, Rossie, & Gutowski, 2017). This 

understanding of environmental implications is pivotal for pinpointing areas that 

warrant enhancement and for the implementation of sustainable practices. 

Furthermore, the assessment enables the evaluation of resource efficiency throughout 



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the product's lifecycle, shedding light on potential optimization opportunities and 

avenues for waste reduction. 

 

As environmental concerns and regulations continue to mount, stakeholders such as 

consumers, investors, and regulatory bodies increasingly demand transparency and 

sustainability from manufacturers (Lee, Kim, & Kim, 2018). By conducting an LCA, a 

company showcases its dedication to environmental responsibility, which can positively 

influence stakeholder perceptions and decisions. Moreover, LCA provides valuable 

insights into the environmental performance of distinct stages in the metal sheet 

product's lifecycle, empowering informed decision-making processes. This includes the 

selection of more sustainable materials, the optimization of manufacturing procedures, 

and the refinement of product design to minimize environmental impacts. 

 

Through this research, Bobi aims to showcase its dedication to eco-friendly 

manufacturing and inform consumers about the environmental aspects of their mailbox 

products. It is only through such analytical tools as LCA and EPD that companies like Bobi 

can forge a path toward a more sustainable and environmentally conscious future. The 

insights gained from this study will inform future decision-making processes, inspire eco-

friendly innovations, and position Bobi as a responsible steward of the environment. 

 

1.1 Background and purpose 

Bobi's mailbox products originate from Vaasa, Finland, and the inception of Bobi 

Corporation dates to 1991 when the concept of the rounded-head mailbox was 

conceived. Over the course of just over three decades, Bobi has evolved into a 

comprehensive product line encompassing various models of mail and parcel boxes, 

designed to cater to diverse usage scenarios. Bobi has transformed into an 

internationally recognized brand, garnering popularity not only within Finland but also 

in numerous countries worldwide. For households across the globe, the concept of 

home holds paramount importance, and an increasing number of households are 

identifying with the high-quality, environmentally friendly Finnish-made Bobi products. 



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Presently, Bobi Corporation is an integral part of the Leinolat Group, with its subsidiary, 

Leimec, consistently responsible to produce Bobi mailboxes throughout its product 

history. With a steadfast commitment to advancing environmental sustainability, Bobi 

Corporation actively encourages both suppliers and customers to participate in the 

ecosystem of environmental sustainability. In pursuit of this goal, Bobi decides to 

conduct a Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) analysis of its two flagship mailbox products, Bobi 

Cargo and Classic. 

 

This thesis is commissioned by Bobi Corporation in collaboration with the manufacturing 

company Leimec, with the primary objective of conducting a comprehensive LCA 

analysis encompassing the entire lifecycle of these two critical mailbox products, each 

tailored to distinct markets and constructed from different materials. The analysis aims 

to inform the creation of Environmental Product Declarations (EPDs) based on the 

findings of the assessment. 

 

1.2 Research questions and objectives 

The background and objectives of this paper are clearly defined, with two primary aims: 

firstly, to conduct a comprehensive Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) study of two mailbox 

product series (Cargo and Classic) manufactured by Leimec Corporation, and secondly, 

to formulate Environmental Product Declarations (EPDs) based on the study findings. 

These objectives serve multiple purposes, including enhancing supply chain 

transparency by regulating key aspects, from raw material procurement to 

manufacturing processes, and improving the understanding of environmental impacts 

associated with these products among both the company and consumers. 

 

In an era marked by an escalating consumer focus on environmental conservation and 

sustainability, products equipped with LCA and EPD data typically garner increased 

favorability. This burgeoning trend augments a company's competitive edge within the 

market and appeals to a broader spectrum of potential customers. Moreover, the 



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outcomes of LCA and EPD investigations assist suppliers in identifying environmental 

hotspots within the product lifecycle and optimizing opportunities for improvement. 

Such insights empower them to refine product designs, enhance manufacturing 

processes, reduce resource consumption, and minimize waste generation, thereby 

effectively mitigating the overall environmental footprint of the product. 

 

This research employs a clearly defined set of research questions to guide the 

investigation. The primary research question seeks to uncover the principal 

environmental impacts spanning the entire lifecycle of the mailbox product. 

Complementing this, two secondary research questions are structured. The first 

secondary question explores the distinct influence of various stages, including raw 

material extraction and manufacturing, on the mailbox's overall environmental 

footprint. The second secondary question delves into the specific stages within the 

mailbox's lifecycle where opportunities arise for enhancing resource efficiency, reducing 

waste, and minimizing emissions. These meticulously crafted research questions provide 

a robust framework for the study, ensuring comprehensive exploration of the 

environmental aspects of the mailbox product. 

 

To realize these objectives, this paper employs a mixed-methods case study approach, 

adhering to internationally standardized LCA methodologies (ISO 14040 and ISO 14044). 

The research methodology integrates primary, real-world data provided by the 

manufacturing company, Leimec, and its suppliers. Additionally, it leverages EPD 

databases, including Ecoinvent EN15804, and utilizes the OpenLCA software for data 

integration and analysis. Finally, the study references relevant published literature to 

complete the comprehensive LCA assessment of the mailbox products. 

 

1.3 Scope and Limitations 

This study focuses on the conduct of a Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) for Bobi Corporation's 

two product lines, namely Cargo and Classic, with the objective of developing an 

Environmental Product Declaration (EPD) based on the analysis outcomes. Given the 



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critical importance of adhering to standardized procedures in LCA research, this 

investigation aligns with the ISO 14040 series of standards (Finkbeiner, 2014) as the 

foundational framework for conducting the assessment. 

 

Moreover, in consideration of the goal of producing an EPD document as a derivative of 

this research, the selection of the OpenLCA software tool for LCA analysis becomes 

particularly pertinent.  OpenLCA is characterized by its robust interoperability, 

facilitating seamless integration with diverse data formats and external databases. This 

characteristic streamlines the process of assimilating datasets from disparate sources 

and databases into the LCA analysis seamlessly. Notably, in this study, the Ecoinvent 

EN15804 EPD database, synergistically integrated with OpenLCA software, will be 

utilized to augment our LCA analysis and EPD generation. 

 

ISO 14020 stands as the international standard within the ISO 14020 series, setting forth 

fundamental principles (ISO, 2006a). The comprehensive series encompasses three 

additional key standards: (1) ISO 14024, focusing on type I environmental labeling; (2) 

ISO 14021, specifically addressing type II environmental labeling; and (3) ISO 14025, 

governing type III environmental declarations (International Organization for 

Standardization, 2016). Due to this Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) serves as a self-

declaration aimed at investigating the environmental aspects of products. And this 

assessment has not undergone certification by an independent third-party organization, 

making it distinct from LCA processes in compliance with ISO 14025. ISO 14025 primarily 

pertains to verified declarations by third-party entities, while this work aligns with the 

principles of ISO 14021, which involve self-declarations without third-party verification 

(International Organization for Standardization, 2016). ISO 14021, which pertains to 

Type II environmental labeling, serves as a central standard within this series. It is often 

associated with self-declared environmental claims. In essence, Type II labels are 

initiated and provided by the product manufacturer or service provider, typically 

without third-party validation (International Organization for Standardization, 2016). It's 

crucial to highlight that this LCA is a rigorous and insightful evaluation, though it remains 



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a self-declaration, marking a significant step towards understanding the environmental 

performance of the products under investigation. 

 

In summary, this research methodologically aligns with the ISO 14040, ISO14020 

standards and leverages the OpenLCA software tool, integrated with the Ecoinvent 

EN15804 EPD database, to ensure the scientific rigor, standardization, and operational 

feasibility of the study. This approach seeks to comprehensively assess the life cycles of 

the Cargo and Classic products and ultimately generate EPD documents that conform to 

established standards. 

 

1.4 Research structure 

Chapter 1 initiates the study by providing an initial overview. It elucidates the research's 

overarching purpose, objectives, and the fundamental inquiries it endeavors to address. 

In Chapter 2, the study engages with the body of relevant literature, critically examining 

key concepts, research methodologies, and recent advancements in the field of Life Cycle 

Assessment (LCA) and environmental impact evaluation. Chapter 3 offers a 

comprehensive exposition of the research methodology. It encompasses a detailed 

description of data collection procedures, analytical techniques employed, and the 

rationale underlying the selection of the specific LCA methodology adopted. This chapter 

4 furnishes crucial contextual information related to Bobi Company, as well as the Classic 

and Cargo mailboxes under investigation. It delves into the intricacies of their production 

processes and provides essential background knowledge. Chapter 5 unfolds the central 

findings arising from the LCA investigation. This encompasses a comprehensive analysis 

of material compositions, impact assessments, and contributions to Global Warming 

Potential (GWP). Additionally, it presents recommendations for mitigating 

environmental impacts. In the concluding chapter 6, the study synthesizes the research's 

primary takeaways. It facilitates a reflection on the implications of the findings and 

embarks on a forward-looking exploration of opportunities for enhancing environmental 

sustainability. 



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2 Literature Review 

2.1 The need for sustainability in operations and supply chains 

Sustainability is increasingly recognized as a critical component of operations and supply 

chains for organizations across the globe. It represents the commitment to managing 

economic, social, and environmental impacts in a way that not only ensures business 

continuity but also aligns with ethical values, regulatory requirements, and societal 

expectations (Mota, Carvalho, Gomes, & Barbosa-Póvoa, 2017). 

 

2.1.1 The benefits of integrating sustainability into operations and supply Chains 

2.1.1.1 Resource efficiency 

Resource efficiency is at the core of sustainable operations and supply chains. It involves 

minimizing resource consumption, reducing waste generation, and optimizing the use of 

energy and materials. LCA plays a pivotal role in measuring and improving resource 

efficiency. It provides a comprehensive view of the resource consumption and emissions 

associated with a product or process throughout its lifecycle (Mota, Carvalho, Gomes, & 

Barbosa-Póvoa, 2017).  

 

Implementing resource efficiency practices offers numerous advantages, ranging from 

cost savings to environmental impact reduction and fostering innovation. Particularly in 

industries where resource costs constitute a significant portion of expenses, such as 

those highlighted by Mota, Carvalho, Gomes, and Barbosa-Póvoa (2017), reducing waste 

and utilizing resources more efficiently can lead to substantial cost savings. Moreover, 

optimizing resource use also contributes to a lower environmental impact by decreasing 

energy consumption and emissions, thereby aligning with environmental objectives and 

regulatory requirements. Embracing resource efficiency often serves as a catalyst for 

innovation in areas like product design, manufacturing processes, and supply chain 

operations, nurturing creativity and driving the development of sustainable alternatives 

(Mota, Carvalho, Gomes, & Barbosa-Póvoa, 2017). 



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2.1.1.2 Competitive advantage 

Consumers, especially those with eco-conscious values, are more likely to choose 

products or services from businesses with a commitment to sustainability. LCA provides 

data to substantiate sustainability claims, helping companies differentiate themselves in 

the market. Consumers can make more informed choices based on verified LCA data. 

Sustainability efforts can lead to increased customer loyalty. When customers perceive 

a company as ethical and environmentally responsible, they tend to remain loyal and 

even become brand advocates (Mota, Carvalho, Gomes, & Barbosa-Póvoa, 2017). 

 

2.1.1.3  Long-term viability 

By addressing environmental and social risks, businesses become better prepared for 

future challenges. This includes supply chain disruptions, resource scarcity, and 

regulatory changes (Mota, Carvalho, Gomes, & Barbosa-Póvoa, 2017). Sustainable 

companies are more likely to adapt to evolving market conditions. Through continuous 

LCA monitoring, companies can adapt and innovate, making their products and 

processes more resilient to future challenges (Mota, Carvalho, Gomes, & Barbosa-Póvoa, 

2017). 

 

2.1.1.4 Supply chain optimization 

Supply chain optimization aims to enhance efficiency and sustainability. Supplier 

evaluation, when integrated with LCA, ensures sustainability throughout the supply 

chain. LCA can evaluate the environmental performance of suppliers, helping companies 

choose sustainable suppliers who align with their sustainability goals (Mota, Carvalho, 

Gomes, & Barbosa-Póvoa, 2017). 

 

LCA offers insights for optimizing the supply chain and reducing its environmental 

footprint. It helps identify "hotspots" in the supply chain with the most significant 

environmental impact, enabling companies to target these areas for optimization. 

Optimization can lead to more efficient transportation and reduced carbon emissions 



17 

through route optimization, consolidation, and better vehicle selection. Identifying 

inefficiencies in the supply chain minimizes waste and promotes a circular economy 

approach (Mota, Carvalho, Gomes, & Barbosa-Póvoa, 2017). 

 

2.2 Life cycle assessment (LCA) 

Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) is a rigorous and systematic approach utilized for the 

examination of the environmental consequences of a product, process, or system 

throughout its entire life span. This analysis encompasses various phases, starting from 

the extraction of raw materials, progressing through manufacturing, transportation, 

usage, and ultimately concluding with disposal or recycling, as detailed by Matthews, 

Hendrickson, and Matthews in 2014. LCA functions as a robust analytical framework, 

enabling the quantitative evaluation of a diverse array of environmental factors, which 

includes but is not limited to energy consumption, greenhouse gas emissions, water 

usage, and the release of pollutants. Through the meticulous examination of these 

variables, LCA offers a comprehensive comprehension of the environmental impact 

linked with a specific entity or activity. 

 

This all-encompassing evaluation provides the means for decision-makers in diverse 

fields such as industry, engineering, policy formulation, and product development to 

pinpoint areas with significant environmental impact and make knowledgeable decisions 

focused on lessening detrimental environmental effects and advancing sustainability 

objectives. LCA, thus, plays a pivotal role in facilitating environmentally conscious 

decision-making processes and resource optimization strategies (Matthews, 

Hendrickson, & Matthews, 2014). 

 

Incorporating LCA into decision-making processes has become increasingly crucial in 

contemporary contexts marked by heightened environmental concerns and 

sustainability imperatives. It enables stakeholders to holistically evaluate the 

environmental performance of different alternatives and make well-informed choices 



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that align with environmental sustainability goals (Matthews, Hendrickson, & Matthews, 

2014). 

 

2.2.1 Background and history 

In the 1960s and 1970s, growing awareness of pollution, resource depletion, and the 

environmental impact of industrial processes led to mounting concerns regarding the 

sustainability of economic development. This period marked the inception of the 

modern environmental movement. During this era, researchers and organizations 

embarked on the development of methodologies aimed at assessing the environmental 

ramifications of products and processes (Curran, 2015). During the latter part of the 

1980s, the fundamental notion of what is now acknowledged as Life Cycle Assessment 

(LCA) started to assume its contemporary form. Influenced significantly by the academic 

and organizational endeavors primarily in Sweden and Switzerland, the International 

Organization for Standardization (ISO) became involved in standardizing LCA 

methodology. This culminated in the publication of the ISO 14040 series of standards in 

the 1990s, providing a standardized framework for the conduct of LCA (Curran, 2015). 

The subsequent decades witnessed the widespread adoption of LCA across diverse 

sectors, encompassing industries, academia, and governmental entities alike. It emerged 

as a pivotal tool for decision-making, product design, and policy formulation, particularly 

within the context of sustainable development and environmental management 

(Mendes da Luz, de Francisco, Piekarski, & Salvador, 2018). 

 

Today, LCA finds extensive utility across various industries, ranging from manufacturing 

and construction to food production and energy. Its significance lies in its ability to 

furnish a holistic perspective on the environmental dimensions of products and 

processes. Furthermore, it has evolved to encompass not only environmental aspects 

but also social and economic dimensions, giving rise to the concept of Life Cycle 

Sustainability Assessment (LCSA). This broader approach acknowledges and integrates 

the triad of environmental, social, and economic considerations, thereby facilitating 



19 

informed practices, product development, and policy decisions aligned with the 

principles of sustainability (Mendes da Luz, de Francisco, Piekarski, & Salvador, 2018). 

 

2.2.2 Theoretical Framework and guidelines 

In the realm of Life Cycle Assessment (LCA), the ISO 14040 and ISO 14044 standards serve 

as indispensable cornerstones. The framework for conducting a Life Cycle Assessment is 

itself predicated on these two fundamental standards (Curran, 2015; Wolf et al., 2010). 

Figure 1 provides a high-level overview of the comprehensive LCA framework. 

 

 

Figure 1.Framework for life cycle assessment (from ISO 14040-2006) 

 

From Figure 1, it is evident that the LCA framework comprises four pivotal stages: Goal 

and Scope Definition, Inventory Analysis, Impact Assessment, and Interpretation. Each 

of these stages contributes significantly to gaining a holistic understanding of the 

environmental impacts associated with a product or process. Subsequently, the insights 

garnered from LCA are utilized in product development, improvement, or the 

formulation of strategic plans, marketing strategies, and even public policy development 



20 

with the overarching goal of promoting environmental friendliness throughout the 

product's lifecycle, thereby facilitating environmental sustainability. Following each 

iteration of improvement, a fresh round of analysis is conducted to evaluate the efficacy 

of new decisions in the real-life product lifecycle, scrutinizing the emergence of novel 

areas for enhancement. 

 

In essence, the LCA framework, anchored in ISO standards, represents a dynamic and 

iterative process for assessing and enhancing environmental sustainability in a 

systematic manner. It not only provides a structured approach to comprehending the 

ecological footprint but also offers a roadmap for steering products and processes 

towards greater environmental harmony, contributing to the overarching goal of 

sustainable development. 

 

2.2.2.1 Goal and scope definition 

To conduct a meaningful Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) analysis, it is imperative to establish 

clear goals and define the scope of the study, as this forms the foundation for all 

subsequent work (ISO14040:2006; ISO14044:2006). 

 

The first step in goal and scope definition is to precisely articulate the research objectives 

and expected outcomes (ISO14044:2006). The definition of objectives serves to 

elucidate the primary purposes of the research. For instance, an objective could be to 

assess the environmental impact of two different manufacturing materials and provide 

decision-making information for the selection of environmentally preferable materials. 

 

Scope definition determines what will be included and excluded from the assessment, 

ensuring that the research remains manageable and relevant. This definition aids in 

specifying the scope of data collection and the level of detail required for each lifecycle 

stage. It also clarifies temporal aspects, such as whether the entire lifecycle will be 

considered or if the assessment will focus on specific stages, like production or 

transportation (ISO14040:2006). Scope definition also involves setting temporal 



21 

boundaries, which determine the time frame of the assessment, including the initiation 

and conclusion of the lifecycle (ISO14040:2006). For example, when assessing the 

environmental impact of two manufacturing materials, one scenario might begin the 

study from the stages of raw material extraction and processing, while another may 

initiate the assessment when the materials enter the manufacturing phase. 

Consequently, the final research outcomes may differ significantly. 

 

Figure 2.System boundaries (from ISO 14040:2006) 

 

From Figure 2, it can be observed that the establishment of the system boundary should 

be rational. In addition to providing textual descriptions and visual representations of 

the chosen system boundary, it is also essential to explain the reasons behind selecting 

and using such a system boundary and demonstrate its validity. 

 

Another crucial aspect of goal and scope definition is the concept of the functional unit, 

representing a quantifiable measure of the environmental impacts to be assessed 

(ISO14040:2006). For example, when assessing the environmental impact of mailboxes, 

the functional unit might be defined as "the environmental impact per unit of mailbox 



22 

pro-duction." Goal and scope definition also encompasses meticulous planning for da-ta 

collection to ensure that data quality meets the required standards (Wolf et al., 2010). 

This phase includes specifying data sources and outlining the methods for data collection 

and analysis. 

 

In summary, goal and scope definition is the foundational step in conducting LCA. It 

clarifies the objectives, system boundaries, and functional units of the assessment. 

These aspects, as defined in international standards (ISO14040:2006; ISO14044:2006), 

ensure a well-structured LCA study capable of providing meaningful insights into the 

environ-mental impacts of a product, process, or system. Precisely defining the goals and 

scope contributes to informed decision-making and aligns with the overarching goal of 

achieving environmental sustainability. However, there are several challenging factors in 

goal and scope definition, such as differing stakeholder concerns and priorities, which 

can complicate the process. Additionally, data collection and availability must be 

considered. As an iterative process, when data or supplementary information is 

insufficient or unavailable, previously de-fined research objectives may need to be 

adjusted or revised to some extent (Wolf et al., 2010). 

 

2.2.2.2 Life cycle inventory analysis  

Life Cycle Inventory (LCI) analysis is a crucial component of Life Cycle Assessment (LCA), 

a systematic method for evaluating the environmental impacts of products, processes, 

or systems over their entire lifecycle (ISO 14040:2006). LCI focuses on the collection and 

quantification of relevant data during the lifecycle assessment process (Curran, 2015). 

 



23 

 

Figure 3. Life cycle inventory template (Cruz-Romero, 2010) 

 

As shown in Figure 3, the first step in Life Cycle Inventory analysis is data collection. Prior 

to this, the identification and construction of processes are necessary. For each lifecycle 

stage and related process, data and parameters related to environmental impacts are 

identified and collected. This includes data on material and energy inputs, waste and 

emissions outputs, and data from the use phase. The collected data serves as inputs and 

outputs to the LCA system. 

 

Data can be sourced from various places, such as suppliers, manufacturers, databases, 

and other literature. Once collected, data is categorized, such as into resource 

consumption categories (e.g., materials, energy, transportation), emission categories 

(e.g., greenhouse gases, wastewater, pollutants), and production waste categories (ISO 

14044:2006). According to ISO 14044:2006, in industrial production processes, it is 

common to produce more than one product simultaneously, referred to as multi-output 

processes. Before allocation, allocation methods should be defined, which vary based on 

the specific objectives and scope of the LCA.  

 

According to Curran (2015), common allocation methods employed in life cycle 

assessments encompass physical allocation, economic allocation, and energy allocation. 

Physical allocation distributes impacts according to physical attributes or mass, as 

exemplified when a process concurrently generates products A and B. In this scenario, 



24 

impacts are apportioned relative to the mass of each product, with the more substantial 

product incurring a correspondingly higher proportional impact. Economic allocation, on 

the other hand, assigns impacts based on the economic value of by-products, 

particularly when products possess distinct market values, with the product of higher 

market value receiving a greater impact allocation. Lastly, energy allocation is predicated 

on the energy content of by-products, facilitating the distribution of impacts in 

proportion to this energy content. Afterward, data from different categories is allocated 

values and quantified. For instance, the carbon dioxide emissions generated per mailbox 

produced, and these are standardized into units like kilograms, megajoules, cubic meters, 

etc. Allocation can be a complex and contentious aspect of LCI, with different 

stakeholders potentially having varying opinions on the most appropriate method. 

Therefore, careful justification of the chosen allocation method's reasonability and 

alignment with the purpose and goals of LCA is crucial (Curran, 2015). Life Cycle 

Inventory analysis plays a pivotal role in life cycle assessment by providing 

comprehensive, quantitative inventories of resource use and environmental emissions. 

(Wolf et al., 2010). 

 

2.2.2.3 Life cycle impact assessment   

Life Cycle Impact Assessment (LCIA) is a crucial component of Life Cycle Assessment 

(LCA), which examines the environmental impacts of products, processes, or systems 

throughout their entire lifecycle. LCIA goes beyond quantifying inputs and outputs; it 

focuses on the potential environmental impacts, potential harm to human health, 

ecosystems, and resources (Rosenbaum et al., 2018).  



25 

 

Figure 4. Structure of the life cycle impact assessment (LCIA) (Piotrowska et al.,2019)  

 

In Figure 4, we can see the overall structure of LCAI. It involves several key steps: 

 

1) Impact Categories:  

 

According to Rosenbaum et al. (2018) impact Categories in LCIA is a structured approach 

to understanding various environmental impacts associated with products, processes, or 

systems. These impact categories provide a systematic framework for assessing 

environmental performance, guiding sustainability assessments, and providing 

information for decision-making. This step helps organize and categorize various 

environmental impacts associated with the lifecycle of products, processes, or systems. 

Impact categories include: 

 

Global Warming Potential (GWP): GWP is a widely recognized and essential impact 

category in LCIA. It quantifies the potential for greenhouse gas emissions to contribute 



26 

to global warming and climate change, usually expressed in carbon dioxide equivalent 

(CO2e) units to assess a product's or process's carbon footprint (Rosenbaum et al., 2018). 

 

Acidification Potential: It assesses the potential for emissions of acidifying substances, 

such as sulfur and nitrogen oxides, to cause acid rain. It focuses on emissions of acidifying 

substances like sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx), which can lead to soil and 

water acidification (Rosenbaum et al., 2018). 

 

Eutrophication Potential: Eutrophication refers to the excessive enrichment of water 

bodies with nutrients, primarily nitrogen and phosphorus. Eutrophication potential 

assesses the potential for nutrient pollution caused by products or processes and its 

harmful effects on aquatic ecosystems (Rosenbaum et al., 2018). 

 

Ozone Depletion Potential: This category assesses the potential impact of emissions on 

depleting the ozone layer, primarily through the release of ozone-depleting substances. 

Although international agreements have addressed this issue, LCIA still considers its 

potential impacts (Rosenbaum et al., 2018). 

 

Human Health Impacts: LCIA evaluates various aspects of human health impacts, 

including respiratory issues, carcinogenicity, and other diseases. It often uses metrics like 

Disability-Adjusted Life Years (DALYs) to quantify potential harm to human health due to 

exposure to pollutants. Some LCIA methods consider impacts related to worker safety 

and health, especially in industries with significant occupational hazards (Rosenbaum et 

al., 2018). 

 

Ecotoxicity: The ecotoxicity impact category assesses the potential harm to ecosystems 

and aquatic life caused by the release of toxic substances. These categories evaluate the 

potential ecological risks associated with pollutants (Rosenbaum et al., 2018). 

 



27 

Resource Depletion: LCIA considers the impact category of resource consumption, 

assessing the depletion of non-renewable resources such as minerals and fossil fuels and 

their environmental impacts (Rosenbaum et al., 2018). 

 

The choice of impact categories depends on the specific objectives and scope of the LCA 

study, making it a flexible and adaptable tool for assessing environmental impacts. 

 

2) Characterization:  

 

According to Rosenbaum et al. (2018) characterization is a critical step in LCIA that 

involves quantifying environmental inventory data and transforming it into meaningful 

and comparable impact scores within selected impact categories. It bridges the gap 

between raw inventory data (e.g., emissions, resource consumption) and the final 

environmental impact assessment results. 

 

Normalization: Normalization is often the initial step in characterization. It makes impact 

scores comparable by scaling them relative to a reference or baseline, such as global 

average emissions (Rosenbaum et al., 2018). 

 

Weighting: Not all impact categories have the same importance according to societal 

values and priorities. Weighting assigns relative significance to different impact 

categories, allowing decision-makers to prioritize certain environmental impacts over 

others (Rosenbaum et al., 2018).  

 

Characterization Factors: Characterization factors are numerical coefficients used to 

quantify the potential environmental impact of unit processes on specific impact 

categories. They provide a conversion between raw inventory data (e.g., resource 

consumption, emissions) and the specific environmental impact being assessed. 

Characterization factors are expressed in units relevant to the impact category under 

consideration. For example, in the context of Global Warming Potential (GWP), the 



28 

model multiplies the emissions of substances by GWP characterization factors, often 

expressed in carbon dioxide equivalent (CO2e) per unit of emitted substance (e.g., 

kilograms of CO2e per kilogram of emitted substance) (Rosenbaum et al., 2018). 

 

3) Impact Assessment Models:  

According to Rosenbaum et al. (2018) impact assessment models are used to calculate 

actual impact scores within each impact category. Different models should consider 

different characterization factors and standardized inventory data. The core of LCIA 

involves assessing the potential environmental impacts within each category. At this 

stage, characterized, normalized, and weighted data are used to calculate the overall 

environmental performance of a product, process, or system. Analysts may identify 

significant contributors to overall impacts, which can guide improvement efforts. 

 

One of the primary objectives of characterization is to make the results of LCIA studies 

comparable. By using common units, factors, and weighting schemes, it is possible to 

assess and benchmark different LCAs, facilitating decision-making and policy 

development (Rosenbaum et al., 2018). After describing impacts within individual 

categories, results can be aggregated across categories to provide an overall assessment 

of the environmental performance of a product, process, or system. Aggregation 

involves merging scores into a single indicator. Aggregation can result in a single 

aggregated score, often referred to as a single score or an environmental performance 

indicator (e.g., Ecological Quality Indicator 90 points). Alternatively, it can generate a 

profile showing performance across multiple impact categories. The choice between a 

single score or a profile depends on the intended audience and the complexity of the 

assessment (Rosenbaum et al., 2018).  

 

According to Rosenbaum et al. (2018) aggregation should consider the uncertainty 

associated with LCIA results. Sensitivity analysis may be conducted to assess how 

variations in data, modeling assumptions, or weighting factors affect the aggregated 

outcomes. Understanding the robustness of the aggregated results is essential for 



29 

decision-making. Aggregated results are typically presented transparently, often in 

charts, graphs, or tables. These results help stakeholders, including policymakers, 

product designers, and consumers, understand the overall environmental performance 

of a product or process. Acknowledging the limitations of aggregation is crucial. 

Summarizing various environmental impacts into a single score can oversimplify complex 

environmental issues, and the choice of weighting factors can be subjective and 

contentious, potentially leading to different interpretations of results. Aggregation 

allows for a more comprehensive assessment of environmental impact, considering 

multiple facets simultaneously. This holistic perspective helps identify trade-offs and 

hotspots, guiding decision-makers toward more sustainable choices. Aggregation in LCIA 

is a process that combines results from multiple impact categories to provide a 

comprehensive assessment of the environmental performance of a product or process. 

It involves the standardization, weighting, and consideration of the functional unit, and 

plays a crucial role in simplifying complex environmental data for informed decision-

making. However, careful consideration of uncertainty in reporting is essential in the 

aggregation process (Rosenbaum et al., 2018). 

 

2.2.2.4 Interpretation 

The Interpretation phase involves a thorough analysis, evaluation, and discussion of the 

results from both the Life Cycle Inventory (LCI) and Life Cycle Impact Assessment (LCIA). 

It is a complex stage where a vast amount of data is transformed into meaningful insights 

and feasible recommendations (Curran, 2015).  

 

The Interpretation phase in life cycle assessment encompasses several key aspects that 

are integral to the comprehensive understanding and analysis of LCA results. It initiates 

with the identification of stakeholders and an exploration of their concerns and interests, 

a pivotal step that guides the entire interpretation process (Curran, 2015). Issue 

identification is another critical component as it necessitates discerning the specific 

questions to which the LCI and LCIA results are pertinent. These questions can span 

diverse aspects of the life cycle, including emissions, waste management, and energy 



30 

efficiency, and providing corresponding explanations is vital to this phase. Result 

evaluation, as outlined by ISO 14044:2006, is a fundamental facet of interpretation, 

involving a thorough scrutiny of the data employed in the LCA. This scrutiny 

encompasses assessing the quality, sources, accuracy, and reliability of the data. 

Furthermore, sensitivity analysis is employed to gauge the robustness of LCA results, 

ensuring a comprehensive and reliable interpretation process. 

 

Conclusions, Recommendations, and Limitations: The aim of interpretation is to provide 

decision support. It should assist stakeholders in making informed choices, prioritizing 

environmental sustainability while considering economic and social aspects. LCA results 

can inform product design, supply chain decisions, policy-making, and eco-labeling 

initiatives. Conclusions from the interpretation should be presented in a clear, 

transparent, and easily understandable manner to ensure stakeholders effectively 

comprehend and utilize this information (Curran, 2015). According to Curran (2015)，

interpretation is a dynamic and iterative process within the LCA framework, essential for 

deriving meaningful insights from environmental assessments. It empowers decision-

makers and stakeholders to make informed choices, support sustainability objectives, 

and drive continuous improvement in products, processes, and systems. While 

interpretation involves various challenges, its role in shaping sustainable practices and 

policies cannot be understated (Curran, 2015). The final conclusions drawn from 

interpretation also have limitations, primarily because interpretation involves subjective 

judgments, especially when balancing environmental impacts or making value-based 

decisions (Curran, 2015). 

 

2.2.3 LCA tool and databases 

Early in the history of Life Cycle Assessment (LCA), researchers and practitioners 

conducted assessments manually due to limited data and tools. Since the 1960s, LCA 

emerged as a widely recognized method for sustainability assessment, leading to the 

necessity of LCA tools (Curran, 2015). As the scope and detail of research expanded, 

collecting, storing, and managing LCA data became increasingly challenging. LCA involves 



31 

integrating large datasets, numerous impact categories, and complex calculations. The 

development of LCA tools aimed to streamline this process. To ensure consistency and 

comparability of results, LCA tools began to adopt standardized impact categories, 

methods, and data sources (Klöpffer, Grahl, & Klöpffer, 2014). 

 

According to Klöpffer, Grahl, and Klöpffer (2014) discussed, LCA tools automate data 

collection, calculations, and analysis, significantly reducing the time and effort required 

for assessments, thus enhancing work efficiency. They facilitate the organization and 

storage of vast data, ensuring data integrity and accessibility. LCA tools employ 

standardized approaches, ensuring consistency and comparability of results across 

studies and industries. LCA inherently involves complex calculations and multiple impact 

categories, and tools assist in managing this complexity. LCA tools enable users to 

explore various scenarios and alternatives, aiding decision-making in sustainable 

practices. They help present LCA results in a clear, intuitive, and understandable manner 

for effective communication to stakeholders (Klöpffer, Grahl, & Klöpffer, 2014). 

 

In the realm of LCA tools, there is a diverse array of options at one's disposal. These 

include Simapro, a widely recognized commercial LCA software celebrated for its 

expansive database and user-friendly interface. GaBi is another notable choice, offering 

extensive databases and frequently employed for sustainability assessments of industrial 

products and processes. Additionally, OpenLCA, an open-source LCA tool, serves as a 

valuable platform for crafting, exchanging, and scrutinizing life cycle inventories. 

 

For this research, OpenLCA has been selected as the LCA tool for several compelling 

reasons. Firstly, it aligns with the principles of open-source software, granting free access 

to all users and substantially reducing software procurement expenses while providing 

access to abundant data resources (Curran, 2015). Secondly, OpenLCA offers 

transparency and robust data management capabilities, allowing users to oversee and 

curate their LCA databases, as well as import data from diverse sources and databases, 

thereby fostering data control, precision, and uniformity (Curran, 2015). Furthermore, 



32 

its support for data exchange formats like ILCD (International Reference Life Cycle Data 

System) and EcoSpold enhances interoperability with other LCA tools and databases, 

streamlining data sharing in research endeavors (Curran, 2015). Lastly, OpenLCA's cross-

platform compatibility, suitable for operating systems such as Windows, macOS, and 

Linux, ensures accessibility and flexibility throughout the research process (Curran, 

2015). 

 

OpenLCA's database covers a wide range of industries, making it suitable for LCA 

assessments in diverse sectors, from agriculture to manufacturing. In this research, 

external data from factories, literature, suppliers, and EPD databases (Ecoinvent 

EN15804) integrated with OpenLCA software will be utilized (Curran, 2015). 

 

Environmental Product Declarations (EPDs) are standardized documents providing 

comprehensive information on the environmental performance of products throughout 

their life cycle. Ecoinvent EN15804 is a specific EPD database adhering to the EN15804 

standard (Hunsager, Bach, & Breuer, 2014). The key features of EPD databases, such as 

Ecoinvent EN15804, are designed to offer several advantages. These databases follow a 

standardized format, simplifying comparisons of the environmental performance of 

different products within the same category, a valuable resource for stakeholders like 

architects, builders, and policymakers (Hunsager, Bach, & Breuer, 2014). Moreover, EPDs 

promote transparency by providing clear information on the environmental impacts of 

products, including their carbon footprint, energy consumption, and resource use, 

empowering informed decision-making in support of sustainability (Hunsager, Bach, & 

Breuer, 2014). These databases also contain comprehensive data on construction 

materials, covering items like cement, steel, insulation, and more, which are essential 

for assessing the environmental impact of building projects (Hunsager, Bach, & Breuer, 

2014). Additionally, given that EPDs are often required by regulations and green building 

certification programs, utilizing EPD databases ensures compliance with these standards 

(Hunsager, Bach, & Breuer, 2014). 

 



33 

2.2.4 LCA applications 

Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) is a versatile and powerful tool with various direct and 

indirect applications for both profit and non-profit organizations (ISO 14044:2006). LCA 

assists organizations and decision-makers in gaining in-depth insights into the 

environmental impacts of products, processes, or systems throughout their entire 

lifecycle. Here are some key applications of LCA (European Commission - Joint Research 

Centre - Institute for Environment and Sustainability, 2010): 

 

Product Design and Development: LCA is used to assess and optimize the environmental 

performance of products during the design phase. It helps identify opportunities to 

reduce environmental impacts, such as minimizing resource use, energy consumption, 

and emissions (European Commission - Joint Research Centre - Institute for Environment 

and Sustainability, 2010). 

 

Supply Chain Management: LCA is employed to evaluate and manage the environmental 

impacts of supply chains. By analyzing the entire lifecycle of a product, organizations can 

identify "hotspots" within the supply chain and collaborate with suppliers to enhance 

sustainability (European Commission - Joint Research Centre - Institute for Environment 

and Sustainability, 2010). 

 

Sustainable Procurement: Organizations use LCA to make environmentally responsible 

procurement decisions. By considering the lifecycle impacts of products, they can choose 

suppliers and materials with lower environmental footprints (European Commission - 

Joint Research Centre - Institute for Environment and Sustainability, 2010). 

 

Waste Management: LCA aids in evaluating waste management strategies. It assesses 

the environmental impacts of various waste disposal options, promoting waste 

reduction, recycling, and responsible disposal practices (European Commission - Joint 

Research Centre - Institute for Environment and Sustainability, 2010). 

 



34 

Energy Planning: LCA is used to compare the environmental impacts of different energy 

generation methods, assisting policymakers and energy providers in making informed 

decisions about energy and infrastructure (European Commission - Joint Research 

Centre - Institute for Environment and Sustainability, 2010). 

 

Marketing and Communication: LCA finds widespread applications in marketing and 

communication, particularly in the context of eco-labels and environmental declarations. 

LCA data is often used to support eco-labels and eco-certifications. Eco-labels are 

symbols awarded to products that meet specific environmental standards. According to 

ISO 14025:2006, Environmental Product Declarations (EPDs) offer detailed 

environmental information about a product's entire lifecycle. These declarations 

transparently communicate a product's environmental attributes, helping consumers 

and stakeholders understand its environmental impacts and make informed purchasing 

decisions. 

 

In conclusion, LCA is a versatile tool that serves various purposes across industries. It 

guides decision-making processes, promotes sustainability, and empowers consumers 

with information to make environmentally conscious choices. Whether applied to 

product design, supply chain management, waste reduction, or energy planning, LCA 

continues to play a pivotal role in addressing environmental challenges and fostering 

responsible practices. 

 

2.2.5 Limitation 

While Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) is a valuable tool for evaluating the environmental 

impacts of products, processes, or systems, it is not without limitations. According to 

Klöpffer, Grahl, & Klöpffer (2014), LCA heavily relies on the quality and availability of data. 

Obtaining accurate and comprehensive data for every stage of a product's lifecycle can 

be challenging, and inaccurate data may introduce uncertainties into the results. The 

definition of the boundaries of an LCA study is subjective, and different system 

boundaries may yield disparate outcomes, underscoring the importance of clearly 



35 

defining the scope of the assessment. Additionally, dynamic changes in time and location 

can render LCA unable to capture long-term environmental effects (Klöpffer, Grahl, & 

Klöpffer, 2014). 

 

Due to this Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) serves as a self-declaration aimed at investigating 

the environmental aspects of products. And this assessment has not undergone 

certification by an independent third-party organization, making it distinct from LCA 

processes in compliance with ISO 14025. ISO 14025 primarily pertains to verified 

declarations by third-party entities, while this work aligns with the principles of ISO 

14021, which involve self-declarations without third-party verification (International 

Organization for Standardization, 2016). ISO 14021, which pertains to Type II 

environmental labeling, serves as a central standard within this series. It is often 

associated with self-declared environmental claims. In essence, Type II labels are 

initiated and provided by the product manufacturer or service provider, typically without 

third-party validation (International Organization for Standardization, 2016). It's crucial 

to highlight that this LCA is a rigorous and insightful evaluation, though it remains a self-

declaration, marking a significant step towards understanding the environmental 

performance of the products under investigation. 

 

Despite these constraints, LCA remains a crucial instrument for assessing and comparing 

the environmental performance of products and systems. Recognizing these limitations 

empowers practitioners to employ LCA results more effectively and make informed 

decisions, while also driving continuous refinement and enhancement of the 

methodology. 

 

2.3 Environmental product declaration （EPD ） 

2.3.1 Background 

According to ISO 14025:2006 (International Organization for Standardization, 2006), 

Environmental Product Declarations (EPDs) are standardized documents that provide 



36 

comprehensive information about a product's environmental performance throughout 

its entire lifecycle. The emergence of EPDs can be traced back to the need for a means 

to communicate the results of Life Cycle Assessments (LCAs) to a broader audience. The 

development and use of EPDs were initially driven by businesses seeking to distinguish 

their products in the market by showcasing their environmental credentials (ISO 

14025:2006). 

 

In 1998, the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) published ISO 14025, 

laying the foundation for the development of EPDs. This standard defined the principles 

and procedures for creating Type III environmental declarations, which later became 

known as EPDs. EPDs are typically prepared in accordance with ISO 14025 and other 

relevant standards. These declarations serve to assist consumers, businesses, and 

policymakers in making informed choices about environmentally friendly products and 

services (ISO 14025:2006). According to ISO 14025:2006 (International Organization for 

Standardization, 2006), throughout the 2010s, the use of EPDs continued to expand, 

with various industries adopting them as tools for communicating environmental 

performance. Today, EPDs are widely recognized and utilized across various sectors and 

regions as valuable tools for assessing and communicating a product's environmental 

performance. Their development and standardization have contributed to the adoption 

of more informed and sustainable approaches to product decision-making. EPDs 

facilitate easy comparisons among different products within the same category. Users 

can assess which products have a smaller environmental impact based on standardized 

indicators. The evolution of EPDs reflects a response to the pressing environmental 

challenges of our time and the need to provide consumers, businesses, and policymakers 

with reliable and standardized environmental information to support decision-making 

(ISO 14025:2006). 

 

PCR 2023:01 represents a standardized framework comprising rules, criteria, and 

directives specifically designed for the development of Environmental Product 

Declarations (EPDs) pertaining to metal mailbox products. It delineates crucial aspects 



37 

to be considered during the creation of an EPD, including the delineation of system 

boundaries, specification of the functional unit for declaration, and establishment of 

criteria for defining utilization and disposal phases (PCR 2023:01, 1.0.1). PCR ensures 

consistency and uniformity in assessing products falling under the same category, 

irrespective of industry, thus facilitating transparency and comparability among various 

EPDs (PCR 2023:01, 1.0.1). In this research, adherence to the guidelines outlined in PCR 

2023:01 will be maintained throughout the data processing and analysis phases. 

 

2.3.2 Relationship between LCA and EPD 

An Environmental Product Declaration (EPD) is a standardized and transparent 

document that communicates the environmental performance of a product throughout 

its lifecycle significance (Hunsager, Bach, & Breuer, 2014). EPDs provide quantitative and 

qualitative information about the environmental impacts of a product, making it easier 

for consumers, businesses, and policymakers to make informed decisions and 

comparisons regarding the environmental aspects of products significance (Hunsager, 

Bach, & Breuer, 2014). 

 

The relationship between EPDs and Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) is fundamental. LCA is 

the scientific methodology used to evaluate and quantify the environmental impacts of 

a product, process, or system across its entire lifecycle (Curran, 2015). It considers 

various dimensions such as resource consumption, energy usage, emissions, and waste 

generation during the raw material extraction, manufacturing, transportation, use, and 

end-of-life phases of a product. LCA aims to provide a comprehensive and objective 

understanding of how a product affects the environment (Curran, 2015). On the other 

hand, EPDs are a means to communicate the results of LCA studies in a standardized and 

user-friendly format. They are typically based on LCA data and conclusions. When a 

company conducts an LCA of its product, it generates a wealth of technical data, graphs, 

and charts, which may be complex and overwhelming for consumers or non-experts 

(Meijer, 2023). An EPD serves as a summary of this data, presenting the key findings in a 

clear, concise, and easily understandable format (Moré, Galindro, & Soares, 2022). As 



38 

shown in Figure 5, Bobi company's supplier Outokumpu company has provided an 

Environmental Product Declaration (EPD) for its ferrochrome product. This allows for a 

more intuitive way to identify the required data when compared to the Life Cycle 

Assessment (LCA) results. 

 

 



39 

 

Figure 5 Example of Ferrochrome EPD impact category indicators and Resource use 
indicators results (Outokumpu) 

 

According to Meijer (2023), EPDs are based on the data and findings derived from LCA 

studies. LCA provides the scientific foundation by quantifying the environmental impact 

of a product, and EPDs use this data for communication. EPDs follow specific standards 



40 

and guidelines, ensuring that the information they present is consistent and comparable. 

This standardization helps consumers and businesses make apples-to-apples 

comparisons between products. EPDs simplify the complex data from LCA studies, 

presenting it in a more accessible manner. They typically include information on a 

product's carbon footprint, energy usage, water consumption, and other environmental 

indicators. EPDs offer transparency by revealing the data sources, methodologies, and 

assumptions used in the LCA. This transparency builds trust and credibility in the 

environmental claims made by manufacturers. EPDs are subject to review and 

verification by third-party experts to ensure that they meet established standards. This 

external validation enhances the credibility of the environmental claims made by the 

product manufacturer (Meijer, 2023). Overall, EPDs play a critical role in making the 

results of LCA studies practical and applicable. They bridge the gap between complex 

scientific data and the need for transparent, credible, and easily understood information 

on a product's environmental performance. This aids consumers in making informed 

choices and encourages manufacturers to enhance the sustainability of their products. 

 

In the context of Bobi Company, the generation of EPDs based on LCA studies contributes 

to their environmental responsibility, transparency, and the promotion of eco-conscious 

products in the market. 

 

2.4 Research studies in the field of metal mailboxes (metal sheet 

products) 

In the realm of metal sheets, numerous studies have explored the applications and 

preservation of metal sheet products in the construction industry. Research on the life 

cycle assessment (LCA) of building components made from metal sheets has been a 

prominent focus. Similarly, in the automotive sector, there have been extensive LCAs 

conducted on sheet metal parts, as well as studies on the life cycle of metal sheet 

welding processes. 

 



41 

However, when it comes to the specific field of metal mailboxes, there is currently a 

noticeable gap in research. Existing studies have primarily revolved around mailbox 

testing, product design, and comparative analyses of linear and circular manufacturing 

system paradigms within the context of metal mailboxes. While these studies contribute 

valuable insights to mailbox production and design, there has yet to be a comprehensive 

life cycle assessment (LCA) dedicated to metal mailbox products. The absence of LCA 

studies in this domain presents a significant opportunity for understanding the 

environmental footprint, sustainability, and overall life cycle impacts of metal mailbox 

products. Such research could provide valuable insights for manufacturers, consumers, 

and policymakers in the mailbox industry, aiding in the development of more sustainable 

and eco-friendly mailbox solutions. Therefore, this thesis aims to bridge this research 

gap by conducting a detailed LCA study on Bobi Company's Classic and Cargo mailboxes, 

thus contributing to the existing knowledge in the field of metal mailbox products. 

 



42 

3 Methodology 

This study was commissioned by the Leinolat Group and conducted as a case study. Its 

subsidiary companies Leimec Company provided comprehensive and accurate 

production data and collaborated with its suppliers to provide data for other stages of 

the product lifecycle. Subsequently, the data were reviewed and submitted by Bobi 

Company. The research adhered to the standardized methods of life cycle assessment 

outlined in ISO 14040 and ISO 14044. 

 

3.1 Research design and approach 

The primary objective of this study is to meet the case company's demands for a 

comprehensive Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) and Environmental Product Declaration (EPD) 

of their mailbox products. Specifically, it focuses on conducting a thorough LCA study of 

two mailbox product series (Cargo and Classic) manufactured by Leimec Company. 

Additionally, it aims to develop EPDs based on the research findings. This study also 

contributes to the literature on metal sheet products. 

 

As a result, the study has formulated one main research question and two secondary 

research questions: The primary research question seeks to uncover the principal 

environmental impacts spanning the entire lifecycle of the mailbox product.  The first 

secondary question explores the distinct influence of various stages, including raw 

material extraction and manufacturing, on the mailbox's overall environmental footprint. 

The second secondary question delves into the specific stages within the mailbox's 

lifecycle where opportunities arise for enhancing resource efficiency, reducing waste, 

and minimizing emissions. 

 

This research is descriptive in nature, primarily involving the collection and organization 

of information about the research subject to depict its characteristics, attributes, and 

conditions (Saunders, Lewis, & Thornhill, 2016). It does not involve intervening or 

manipulating variables. The methodology employed in this study is a mixed research 



43 

approach, encompassing the collection of quantitative data, such as product parameters, 

transportation parameters, waste parameters, and energy parameters, as well as the 

collection of qualitative data, including product manufacturing processes, production 

techniques, and surface treatments. 

 

3.2 Data collection and analysis 

This study involves the collection and analysis of both quantitative and qualitative data. 

This section provides an overview of the data. Open LCA software will be utilized for data 

analysis. Data will be sourced from various avenues: 

 

Quantitative Data: 

 

a) Real production, transportation, energy consumption data from Leimec Company, 

as well as production data from its suppliers. 

b) Bill of Materials (BOM) data provided by Bobi Company. 

c) EPD databases (Ecoinvent EN15804) integrated with OpenLCA software. 

d) Estimation of direct or indirect transportation distances between suppliers using 

Google Maps. 

 

Qualitative Data: 

 

a) Production processes and manufacturing techniques employed by Leimec 

Company. 

b) Relevant material production processes and surface treatment processes from 

literature sources. 

 

3.3 Reliability and Validity 

This study adheres to the standardized LCA methodology outlined in ISO 14040 and ISO 

14044. The consistency of the entire research methodology ensures that the results are 



44 

replicable, thereby enhancing reliability (Saunders, Lewis, & Thornhill, 2016). The 

reliability of data is crucial in LCA studies. It is imperative to use accurate and up-to-date 

data from reliable sources (Saunders, Lewis, & Thornhill, 2016). In this study, data 

obtained from Leimec Company, Bobi Company, and the EPD database (Ecoinvent 

EN15804) ensures the authenticity and reliability of the data sources. According to 

Saunders, Lewis, & Thornhill (2016), several crucial measures are undertaken to validate 

the data's reliability and validity.  These measures encompass a Completeness Check, 

which assures the dataset's comprehensiveness without omitting vital data points; a 

Consistency Check, which diligently identifies any contradictions or inconsistencies 

within the data; and a Sensitivity Analysis, which rigorously evaluates the robustness of 

the research results. This entails varying key parameters or data inputs within reasonable 

ranges to gain insights into how changes affect the outcomes. 

 

These steps are essential in verifying the reliability and validity of the data and the 

subsequent analysis, ultimately ensuring the credibility and trustworthiness of the 

research outcomes (Saunders, Lewis, & Thornhill, 2016). 



45 

4 LCA case study 

4.1 Goal and scope 

Bobi Company is steadfast in its commitment to advancing environmental sustainability 

and actively encourages suppliers and customers to engage in the ecosystem of 

environmental sustainability. To achieve this goal, a lifecycle assessment (LCA) analysis 

was conducted on two product lines, codenamed Bobi Cargo (Figure 6) and Bobi Classic 

(Figure 7. Subsequently, environmental product declarations (EPDs) were formulated 

based on the assessment results. These two products entail different raw materials, 

production processes, and transportation methods throughout their respective lifecycles, 

making them representative subjects for analysis. 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

4.1.1 Functional unit 

The functional unit refers to the quantified definition of a product's performance used 

as a reference unit (ISO14044:2006). In this study, the functional units are represented 

by two distinct types of mailboxes, Bobi Cargo and Bobi Classic, each constructed from 

Figure 6. Bobi Cargo mailbox (Bobi, 
2023) 

Figure 7. Bobi Classic mailbox 
(Bobi,2023) 



46 

different materials. Therefore, the functional unit for the Metal mailbox is based on the 

quality parameter of the environmental impact generated by each mailbox, such as the 

quantity of carbon dioxide emissions produced over the lifecycle of each mailbox. 

 

4.1.2 System boundaries 

The International EPD System employs an approach where it is essential to encompass 

all attributional processes spanning from the product's creation to its disposal, guided 

by the principle of "minimizing the loss of information at the final product stage." This 

approach holds particular significance in the context of business-to-consumer 

communication (PCR 2023:01, 1.0.1). 

 

PCR (2023:01, 1.0.1) outlines two optional scopes for EPD-based LCAs, offering a choice 

between a "cradle-to-gate" EPD, which draws data from the UPSTREAM and CORE life 

cycle stages, and a "cradle-to-grave" EPD, which extends to encompass the 

DOWNSTREAM stage. However, preparing a "cradle-to-grave" EPD necessitates the 

development of comprehensive information that defines the product's function and 

encompasses scenarios for managing its usage and end-of-life stage, a critical step for 

ensuring comparability within the specific application of the product group. Achieving 

this entails gathering detailed data to define the product's function and outline scenarios 

for managing its usage and end-of-life stage within the specific context of the metal 

product group. Given the complex nature of end customers for mailboxes, involving 

individual users in various countries, the task of acquiring relevant data on disposal 

processes for mailboxes and their packaging is challenging. To maintain the precision and 

reliability of this study, the chosen EPD type is "cradle-to-gate," with careful 

consideration of the specified boundaries. 

 



47 

4.1.3 Life cycle stages 

To adhere to various data quality regulations and for the presentation of findings, and as 

per the EPD boundary type chosen based on our PCR (2023:01, 1.0.1) selection, the 

product's life cycle is divided into two distinct life cycle phases: 

 

Upstream processes (from cradle-to-gate): This encompasses Leimec's factory's direct or 

indirect procurement activities, involving the production and transportation of steel 

sheet materials, as well as the production and transportation of other components and 

packaging materials. 

 

Core processes (from gate-to-gate): This includes the processing, manufacturing, 

assembly, and testing of metal sheet materials within Leimec's factory. It also 

incorporates equipment consumption, energy consumption and on-site production 

waste. 

 

4.1.4 Other boundaries 

Temporal and Geographic Boundaries: In terms of temporal scope, all primary data 

collected by Bobi Company are sourced from the year 2022. The EPD databases 

(Ecoinvent EN15804 3.9.1) integrated with OpenLCA software also pertain to the year 

2022. Regarding the geographic scope, the suppliers involved in the mailbox 

manufacturing process are all based in Finland. 

 

4.1.5 System diagram 

Figure 8 presents a system diagram of the Cargo mailbox. This diagram provides a 

comprehensive representation of the various stages within the product's lifecycle, 

including upstream, core, and downstream processes. Through this visual representation, 

it becomes possible to trace the relevant upstream processes, core manufacturing 

processes, and downstream handling processes. This aids in gaining a holistic 

understanding of the entire lifecycle of the Cargo mailbox. 



48 

 

Similarly, Figure 9 illustrates a system diagram for the Bobi Classic mailbox. In contrast to 

the Cargo mailbox, the Classic mailbox employs stainless steel as its primary material, 

resulting in the omission of a surface coating process during manufacturing. These two 

system diagrams facilitate a comparative analysis of the lifecycles of these two mailbox 

variants, highlighting distinctions, particularly in terms of material selection and 

production processes. 

 

 

Figure 8. Bobi Cargo mailbox system diagram  

 



49 

 

Figure 9. Bobi Classic mailbox system diagram  

 

4.1.6 Cut-off rules 

In accordance with the standards outlined in the PCR (2023:01, 1.0.1) concerning Cut-

off criteria, the 1% cut-off rule should be applied. In simpler terms, the inventory data 

included should collectively account for at least 99% of the results for any environmental 

impact category. Furthermore, this consideration should extend to encompass 99% of 

the product's mass and 99% of the energy usage throughout its lifecycle. However, it is 

advisable to avoid cut-off for inventory data and utilize all available inventory data 

whenever possible. 

 

4.1.7 Allocation rules 

As Leimec Company solely focuses on mailbox production, the total consumption and 

waste generation for the year 2022 need only be averaged out across the total quantity 

of mailboxes produced in that same year. 

 

Regarding the allocation procedure for waste and recycling activities, waste allocation 

should adhere to the Polluter Pays Principle and its interpretation in EN 15804: "The 

waste treatment processes shall be allocated to the product system that generated the 



50 

waste until a waste termination state is reached." The waste termination state is 

attained when all criteria for waste termination (PCR 2023:01, 1.0.1). Metal products 

typically have well-established processes for recycling significant amounts of metal 

waste generated within the value chain. Some principles to be followed is internal 

recycling waste generated during the manufacturing process should not be considered 

as input for secondary materials (PCR 2023:01, 1.0.1). 

 

4.1.8 Data quality 

The life cycle inventory data is divided into specific data and generic data (PCR 2023:01, 

1.0.1). Specific data, also known as primary data, comprise actual data collected from 

Leimec factory and its suppliers regarding the life cycle of Cargo and Classic mailboxes. 

It includes the production and transportation of materials, distances to relevant 

production sites, transportation methods, the number of transports, and product 

quantities. Additionally, a material bill of materials (BOM) is provided by Bobi Mailbox 

Design Company. 

 

Generic data, also referred to as secondary data, will be utilized for processes where 

specific data cannot be obtained. These generic data are sourced from EPD databases 

(Ecoinvent EN15804 3.9.1) integrated with OpenLCA software. The Ecoinvent EN15804 

3.9.1 database was last updated in 2022, aligning with the year of original data collection 

and complying with the rules of generic data as specified in the PCR (2023:01, 1.0.1). 

 

4.2 Life cycle inventory analysis 

Life Cycle Inventory (LCI) analysis primarily involves the analysis, organization, and 

modeling of data. It includes defining the scope of the study and specifying the 

functional unit. The objective is to identify and quantify all materials, energy, and 

resources used in each life cycle stage from the raw data. This encompasses raw 

materials, water, electricity, energy sources, and any other resources involved 

throughout the product's life cycle. In this study, we are examining the LCA of two 



51 

mailbox models, "Cargo" and "Classic," for the year 2022. This requires the compilation 

and analysis of both quantitative and qualitative research data provided by the Leimec 

factory and Bobi company. These data need to be standardized into consistent units and 

quantified for each specific process, subsequently input into the Open LCA tool. 

 

Quantitative research data encompasses the total purchased raw materials data, bill of 

materials (BOM), which includes all the parts, materials, and packaging required for each 

mailbox, the number of shipments, transportation methods, distances traveled, 

materials and energy consumed for surface treatment, waste generation, energy 

consumption, outputs, emissions, and all other relevant data. 

 

Qualitative research data includes information about manufacturing processes and 

procedures, types of materials, and surface treatment processes provided directly by 

Leimec factory and its suppliers. 

 

In the data, the manufacturing stage is divided into two parts: upstream manufacturing 

and core manufacturing. According to the Product Category Rules (PCR) (2023:01, 1.0.1) 

description, data related to raw materials in the upstream manufacturing stage are 

sourced from the EPD databases (Ecoinvent EN15804 3.9.1) integrated with OpenLCA 

software. This data is then combined with transportation information provided by the 

Leimec factory, including transportation locations, distances, methods, frequency, 

weights, etc. Finally, this information is connected to the core manufacturing stage for 

data modeling. 

 

4.3 Life cycle impact assessment 

Life Cycle Impact Assessment (LCIA) involves the computation of results based on Life 

Cycle Inventory (LCI) data within the OpenLCA tool, which are presented in tables and 

graphs. Users have the flexibility to select impact assessment categories, and the top 

four or five processes contributing the most to each category are visually displayed in 

chart form. In LCIA, a comprehensive list of system processes, inputs, outputs, their 



52 

numerical values, and units is also provided for all products. Furthermore, it allows for 

the assessment of contributions from processes and flows to specific environmental 

impact categories, along with their respective shares, based on the outcomes of different 

impact classifications. By conducting regional analysis, it becomes possible to estimate 

the geographic location of the selected item, its contributions within that region, and 

identify the processes responsible for the same impact category within that region. LCIA 

also facilitates the adjustment of variable data groups to compare the differences in 

results. The results of the impact assessment and the evaluation of the results is 

presented in Chapter 5. 

 

4.4 Interpretation of results 

As the final phase of LCA, it is imperative to iteratively categorize and interpret the entire 

research findings. This interpretation of results serves the purpose of discussing and 

addressing the research questions posed earlier. A comprehensive evaluation of the 

interpretation of results, their significance, effectiveness, and reliability, will be 

presented in Chapter 5. 

 



53 

5 Results and recommendations 

This chapter provides an overview of the findings from the LCA investigation. These 

findings serve a dual purpose: not only for the subsequent creation of an EPD but also 

for the identification of areas with significant environmental impact and potential 

enhancements. The chapter commences with an introduction to the primary material 

used in the Cargo and Classic mailbox, followed by an assessment of their recyclability 

potential. Subsequently, it delves into the essential conclusions derived from the impact 

assessment outcomes and conducts an analysis of process contributions. 

 

5.1 Component materials 

Table 1 and Table 2 present the material composition of Classic mailboxes and Cargo 

mailboxes, encompassing both the mailbox itself and its packaging. Table 1 

demonstrates that stainless steel predominates as the primary material in Classic 

mailboxes, constituting a substantial 81.35% of the composition. Packaging materials 

account for 17.50%, while the remaining components of the mailbox consist of a limited 

proportion of plastic materials, amounting to just 1.15%. 

 

Table 1. Classic mailbox materials 

Material Name Weight (kg) Weight % 

Metal Steel, stainless steel 5.67 81.35% 

Plastics ABS,DPE, film,bags 0.08 1.15% 

Wood products Carton board, cardboard,pallet 1.22 17.50% 

Total   6.97 100.00% 
 
Table 2 demonstrates that galvannealed steel predominates as the primary material in 

Cargo mailboxes, constituting a substantial 79.63% of the composition. Packaging 

materials account for 19.48%, while the remaining components of the mailbox consist 

of a limited proportion of plastic materials, amounting to just 0.88%. 



54 

Table 2. Cargo mailbox materials 

Material Name Weight (kg) Weight % 

Metal Galvannealed steel  11.73 79.63% 

Plastics ABS,DPE, film,bags 0.13 0.88% 

Wood product Carton board, cardboard,pallet 2.87 19.48% 

Total   14.73 100.00% 

 

5.2 Impact assessment 

5.2.1 Bobi Classic mailbox impact assessment 

 

According to the Product Category Rules (PCR) (2023:01, 1.0.1) description, the impact 

assessment can be analyzed from two perspectives, impact category indicators and 

resource use indicators. In the impact category indicators, Table 3 displays the results for 

the Classic mailbox, including Global Warming Potential (GWP), Ozone Layer Depletion 

(ODP), Acidification Potential (AP), Eutrophication Potential (EP), Photochemical Oxidant 

Creation Potential (POCP), Abiotic Depletion Potential (ADP), and Water Deprivation 

Potential (WDP). Table 4 presents resource use indicators for the Classic mailbox, 

including Primary Energy Resources - Renewable, Primary Energy Resources - Non-

renewable, Renewable Secondary Fuels, Non-renewable Secondary Fuels, and Net Use 

of Freshwater, along with their respective quantities in both the Upstream and Core 

stages.  



55 

Table 3. Classic mailbox impact category indicators 

PARAMETER UNIT Upstream Core  TOTAL 

Global 
warming 
potential 
(GWP) 

Fossil kg CO2 eq. 1.81E+01 3.05E+00 2.11E+01 

Biogenic kg CO2 eq. -1.35E+00 2.85E-02 -1.32E+00 

Land use and 
land 
transformation 

kg CO2 eq. 9.45E-03 3.18E-03 1.26E-02 

TOTAL kg CO2 eq. 1.67E+01 3.08E+00 1.98E+01 

Ozone layer depletion (ODP) 
kg CFC 11 
eq. 

3.37E-06 6.40E-07 4.01E-06 

Acidification potential (AP) mol H+ eq. 6.24E-02 9.00E-03 7.14E-02 

Eutrophication 
potential (EP) 

Aquatic 
freshwater 

kg P eq. 3.16E-03 3.20E-04 3.48E-03 

Photochemical oxidant creation 
potential (POCP) 

kg NMVOC 
eq. 

3.70E-02 6.60E-03 4.36E-02 

Abiotic 
depletion 
potential 
(ADP) 

Fossil 
resources 

MJ, net 
calorific 
value 

4.24E+02 5.45E+00 4.30E+02 

Metals and 
minerals 

kg Sb eq. 6.39E-05 1.73E-05 8.12E-05 

Water deprivation potential 
(WDP) 

m3 world 
eq. deprived 

2.82E+01 4.60E-01 2.87E+01 

 



56 

Table 4. Classic mailbox resource use indicators 

PARAMETER UNIT Upstream Core TOTAL 

Primary 
energy 
resources – 
Renewable 

Use as energy 
carrier 

MJ, net 
calorific 
value 

2.42E+01 1.53E+00 2.57E+01 

Used as raw 
materials 

MJ, net 
calorific 
value 

3.57E+01 5.70E-01 3.63E+01 

TOTAL 
MJ, net 
calorific 
value 

5.99E+01 2.10E+00 6.20E+01 

Primary 
energy 
resources – 
Non-
renewable 

Use as energy 
carrier 

MJ, net 
calorific 
value 

4.68E+02 1.05E+01 4.78E+02 

Used as raw 
materials 

MJ, net 
calorific 
value 

9.58E+00 3.89E+01 4.85E+01 

TOTAL 
MJ, net 
calorific 
value 

4.77E+02 4.94E+01 5.27E+02 

Renewable secondary fuels  
MJ, net 
calorific 
value 

-1.30E-02 2.90E-02 1.60E-02 

Non-renewable secondary 
fuels  

MJ, net 
calorific 
value 

1.35E-01 1.66E-01 3.01E-01 

Net use of fresh water  m3 6.86E-01 1.09E-02 6.97E-01 



57 

 
Figure 10. Compare the proportion of impact category indicators for the Classic 

mailbox in the upstream stage and the core manufacturing stage  

 
Figure 10 compares the proportion of impact category indicators for the Classic mailbox 

in the upstream and core manufacturing stages. Combining the analysis with Table 3 and 

Figure 10, we can see the Global Warming Potential (GWP) is the most significant 

environmental impact category in both the upstream and core manufacturing stages. 

The total GWP for the product is 19.8 kg CO2 equivalent. The notable reduction in GWP 

from the upstream to the core manufacturing stage (from 16.7 kg CO2 equivalent to 3.08 

kg CO2 equivalent) suggests that a substantial portion of greenhouse gas emissions is 

associated with the earlier stages of the product's lifecycle, such as raw material 

extraction and transportation. This finding underscores the critical importance of 

directing sustainability efforts towards the upstream stages to mitigate carbon emissions. 

 

In relative terms, the Ozone Layer Depletion (ODP)  metric assumes a less substantial 

role within the overall environmental impact assessment, yielding a cumulative value of 

4.01E-6 kg CFC 11 eq. Conspicuously, ODP contributions in the core manufacturing stage 

register notably lower than those in the upstream stage, signifying a marginal role of the 



58 

latter in exacerbating ozone layer depletion. Although ODP values remain modest, 

prudent adherence to environmental regulations warrants consistent monitoring and 

minimization of emissions associated with ozone-depleting substances. 

 

The