Joonas Jylhä 

Visual Heatmaps in User Experience Design 

Attitudes and Adoption Factors 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 
  

Vaasa 2024 

School of Technology and Innovations 
Master’s thesis in Economic and Business Administration  

Technical Communication 



2 

UNIVERSITY OF VAASA 
School of Technology and Innovations 

Author: Joonas Jylhä 
Title of the Thesis: Visual Heatmaps in User Experience Design: Attitudes and Adoption 

Factors 
Degree: Master of Science in Economics and Business Administration 
Programme: Technical Communication, Information Systems 
Supervisor: Laura Havinen 
Year: 2024 Sivumäärä: 82 

ABSTRACT: 
Visual heatmaps, illustrating user behaviour and areas of interest in a two-dimensional graphical 
representation, have become widely utilized in the user experience (UX) industry. When appro-
priately utilized, visual heatmaps efficiently summarize and communicate significant volumes of 
user data to designers. They can even have the capacity to reveal the focal points of users' at-
tention across specific emotional and cognitive states. Despite their benefits, heatmaps are sus-
ceptible to misinterpretation stemming from deficient data analysis or lack of focus. 
 
Recent academic research has primarily focused on the technical aspects and potential benefits 
of the technology used in generating visual heatmaps, with a specific emphasis on eye tracking-
related technology being prevalent in scholarly articles. In contrast to prior studies, the research 
objective of this thesis is on the attitudes of UX designers toward this technology and the factors 
that impact its adoption. This objective is explored through three research questions. To answer 
these questions, qualitative data was gathered through ten semi-structured individual inter-
views with UX professionals. The collected data was analysed through thematic analysis. 
 
The findings reveal that UX designers are aware of visual heatmap technology but often limit its 
use in UX design. Attitudes among participants revealed a spectrum, ranging from more cau-
tious, negative and sceptical to positive optimism. Thematic analysis revealed designers with 
technical background to favour more established methods, while those with visual or humanistic 
education seeing value in visual format and experimental nature of heatmaps. Heatmaps were 
considered most effective when complementing findings from other UX tools. Limited resources 
pose a significant constraint in the utilization of heatmap technology. Interviewees highlighted 
that recent industry establishment, resulting partially from legislative changes in accessibility 
and privacy, have further reduced the necessity for experimentation in UX evaluation. 
 
The relevance of the results of this thesis may vary depending on e.g. the organizational struc-
ture and project scope. As the thematic analysis was conducted during the interviews, the vari-
ability of code frequency was observed to stabilize by the end of the final interviews. This indi-
cated successful data saturation and consistency. Given the extensive variety encompassing 
both the spectrum of technology associated with visual heatmaps and the visual format they 
present, future research could investigate the effectiveness of specific combinations of heatmap 
and evaluation methods. Furthermore, additional inquiry could aim to elucidate the reasons be-
hind the attitude gap identified between the technical and humanistic domains in UX design. 
 
 
 
 

KEYWORDS: Human-computer interaction, User-centred design, Usability, User experience, 
User interfaces, Eye tracking 



3 

VAASAN YLIOPISTO 
Tekniikan ja innovaatiojohtamisen yksikkö 

Tekijä: Joonas Jylhä 
Tutkielman nimi: Visual Heatmaps in User Experience Design:  

Attitudes and Adoption Factors 
Tutkinto: Kauppatieteiden maisteri 
Oppiaine: Tekninen viestintä, tietojärjestelmätiede 
Työn ohjaaja: Laura Havinen 
Valmistumisvuosi: 2024 Sivumäärä: 82 

TIIVISTELMÄ: 
Viime vuosina visuaalisten lämpökarttojen (eng. heatmap) käyttö on yleistynyt myös käyttäjä-
kokemussuunnittelussa. Lämpökartat tiivistävät suuria määriä käyttäjistä kerättyä tietoa havain-
nolliseen graafiseen muotoon. Edistyneimmillä lämpökarttatyövälineillä on kyky yhdistää tietoa 
käyttäjien keskittymisestä myös tunnereaktioihin, mikä voi olla arvokasta käyttäjäkokemuksen 
arvioinnin kannalta. Monista mahdollisuuksistaan huolimatta, lämpökarttojen tulkintaan liittyy 
riskejä, esimerkiksi puutteellisen analyysin tai tavoitteiden rajauksen osalta. 
 
Aiempi tutkimus on keskittynyt pääasiassa visuaalisten lämpökarttojen tuottamiseen käytettyyn 
teknologiaan. Erityisesti silmänliikeseurantaan liittyvää teknologiaa käsittelevät tutkimukset 
ovat korostuneet. Toisin kuin aiemmissa tutkimuksissa, tämän opinnäytetyön tutkimusaiheena 
ovat käyttäjäkokemussuunnittelijoiden asenteet lämpökarttateknologiaa ja sen käyttöä kohtaan 
sekä käytön taustalla vaikuttavat tekijät. Aihetta lähestytään kolmen tutkimuskysymyksen 
kautta. Laadullinen tutkimusaineisto kerättiin haastattelemalla kymmentä käyttäjäkokemus-
suunnittelun ammattilaista. Aineisto analysoitiin käyttämällä temaattista analyysia. 
 
Tulokset osoittivat, että suunnittelijat ovat tietoisia lämpökarttateknologiasta, mutta sen käyttö 
käyttäjäkokemussuunnittelussa on rajallista. Haastateltujen suunnittelijoiden asenteet muodos-
tivat kirjon kielteisen varovaisesta positiiviseen optimismiin teknologiaa kohtaan. Teknisemmän 
taustan omaavat suunnittelijat luottavat alan vakiintuneisiin menetelmiin. Visuaalisen tai huma-
nistisen taustan omaavat suunnittelijat näkevät arvoa lämpökarttojen visuaalisessa muodossa 
ja kokeellisessa luonteessa. Suunnittelijat pitävät lämpökarttoja tehokkaimpina tilanteissa, 
joissa niistä saatua tietoa käytetään täydentävästi muiden työvälineiden ja metodien kanssa. 
Rajalliset resurssit muodostavat merkittävän rajoitteen teknologian käytölle. Käyttäjäkoke-
musalan ja sen suunnitteluprosessien vakiintuminen on vähentänyt kokeilujen tarvetta myös 
käyttäjäkokemuksen arvioinnissa. Vakiintumiseen ovat vaikuttaneet osaltaan saavutettavuu-
teen ja tietosuojaan liittyvät lainsäädännön uudistukset. 
 
Koska temaattista analyysia tehtiin haastattelujen aikana, koodien esiintymisvaihtelun voitiin 
havaita kyllääntyvän. Tämä viittaa tulosten luotettavuuteen. Tulosten merkitys voi kuitenkin 
vaihdella esimerkiksi suunnitteluprojektin laajuuden tai organisaatiorakenteen perusteella. 
Koska visuaalisiin lämpökarttoihin liittyvä teknologia ja lämpökarttojen visuaaliset ilmentymät 
ovat moninaisia, jatkotutkimuksissa tulisi selvittää eri lämpökarttateknologioiden ja -menetel-
mien sekä näiden yhdistelmien tehokkuutta. Lisäksi olisi arvokasta selvittää vaikuttaako koulu-
tustausta asenteisiin teknologiaa ja sen käyttöönottoa kohtaan. 
 
 
 

AVAINSANAT: Ihmisen ja tietokoneen vuorovaikutus, käyttäjäkeskeinen suunnittelu, käytet-
tävyys, käyttäjäkokemus, käyttöliittymät, silmänliiketutkimus  



4 

Contents 

1 Introduction 7 

1.1 Research objective and methodology 9 

1.2 Structure of the thesis 10 

2 User experience design 11 

2.1 Defining user experience 11 

2.2 The facets of UX 14 

2.3 Distinctiveness and time spans of UX 17 

2.4 UX design as a practice 18 

2.5 UX methods and evaluation 20 

3 Physiological measurement tools and visual heatmaps 23 

3.1 Physiological measurement tools 24 

3.1.1 Eye tracking 26 

3.1.2 Touchscreen interaction and cursor tracking 28 

3.2 Visual heatmaps 29 

4 Research method and process 31 

4.1 Qualitative interviews 31 

4.2 Thematic analysis 34 

5 Results 38 

5.1 Participants background 38 

5.1.1 Education and work experience 39 

5.1.2 Perception of the UX industry and its recent development 40 

5.2 Attitudes of UX designers towards utilization of visual heatmaps 41 

5.2.1 Raincloud attitude 42 

5.2.2 Sunshine attitude 47 

5.3 Influential factors in heatmap utilization 51 

5.3.1 Strength of existing design principles, tools, and platforms 52 

5.3.2 Limited resources 53 

5.3.3 Privacy concerns 54 



5 

5.3.4 Objectivity of heatmaps 55 

5.4 Effective methods in heatmap utilization 57 

5.4.1 Use as part of a triangulation of methods 57 

5.4.2 Verifying and  validating existing results 58 

5.4.3 Seeking solutions for complex design cases 58 

5.4.4 Gaining stakeholder approval 60 

5.4.5 Enhancing customer journey design 61 

5.5 Summary of findings 62 

6 Discussion 64 

6.1 Interpretation and implication of results 64 

6.1.1 Designer attitude 65 

6.1.2 Adoption factors 66 

6.1.3 Effective methods 67 

6.2 Summary of contributions 68 

6.3 Validity and reliability of the research 68 

6.4 Future research 69 

References 71 

Appendices 81 

Appendix 1. Examples of interview questions 81 

  



6 

Figures 
 
Figure 1: DT, UCD and HCD (Kohli, 2022). 12 

Figure 2: UX honeycomb (adapted by Karagianni, 2018). 14 

Figure 3: Facets of UX (adapted from Hassenzahl & Tractinsky, 2006, p. 95). 16 

Figure 4: Time spans of UX. 18 

 

Tables 
 
Table 1: Commonly used physiological tools. 25 

Table 2: Main types of visual heatmaps used in UX design. 30 

Table 3: Interview themes. 32 

Table 4: Phases of thematic analysis (Braun & Clarke, 2006, pp. 77–101). 34 

Table 5: Themes and their concluding chapters in the thesis. 36 

Table 6: Interview participants and their background. 39 

 

Abbreviations 
 
AI  Artificial intelligence 
DT  Design thinking 
ECG  Electrocardiography 
EDA  Electrodermal activity 
EEG  Electroencephalography 
EMG  Electromyography 
ECD  Experience-centred design 
GDPR  General Data Protection Regulation 
GSR  Galvanic skin response 
GUI  Graphical user interface 
HCD  Human-centred design 
HCI  Human-computer interaction 
UAT  User acceptance testing 
UCD  User centred design 
UI  User interface 
UX  User experience 
UXD  User experience design  



7 

1 Introduction 

The user adoption process as well as user satisfaction are often influenced significantly 

by good usability and the overall user experience (UX) (Burger et al., 2018, p. 2; Georges 

et al., 2016, p. 4850; Guo et al., 2022, p. 797). In the past decade, visual UX heatmaps, 

that illustrate user behaviour in a two-dimensional graphical representation, have be-

come widely used in the domain of user experience design (UXD) (Bojko, 2009, p. 30; 

Novák et al., 2023, pp. 1–17). In recent academic research, the discourse surrounding 

the use of visual heatmaps in UXD frequently diverts attention from their application to 

the underlying technology involved in their generation. Specifically, in interest related to 

eye tracking, there has been a significant increase in scholarly articles in recent years. 

(Novák et al., 2023; Schall, 2014; Yang & Qin, 2021). While these articles often examine 

the application and potential advantages or disadvantages of this technology, they typi-

cally do not address the attitudes of UX designers toward their utilization or the factors 

influencing their adoption in UX design (Novák et al., 2023). Thus, this thesis aims to 

explore the attitudes of UX designers regarding the use of visual heatmaps as well as the 

adoption factors and effective methods associated in their use. 

 

In UXD, conventional assessment techniques, like questionnaires and interviews, depend 

mostly on self-reported information to evaluate users' affective and cognitive states 

(Georges et al., 2016, p. 4850). With these methods, a variety of response effects, such 

as social desirability, can regularly affect users (King & Bruner, 2000, pp. 79–103) and 

inventive and creative new approaches have been sought after in product development 

(Arhippainen & Pakanen, 2013, p. 80). Given that user experience is regarded by most 

UX professionals to be an evolving, context dependent, and subjective concept (Lalle-

mand et al., 2015, p. 44; Law et al., 2009, p. 719), physiological measurement tools pro-

vide an opportunity to collect more objective data that complements subjective UX eval-

uations, thus offering valuable insight into user behaviour (Mussgnug et al., 2014, pp. 1–

2). 

 



8 

Perspectives of UX designers regarding UX methodology have been previously explored 

by Law et al. (2009, 2014) and Lallemand (2015). Law et al. focused on how UX designers 

define their own field of practice and what are their attitudes towards UX measurements. 

The majority of UX designers considered the UX field to be dynamic, yet strongly linked 

to the human-computer interaction (HCI) domain and user centred design (UCD) prac-

tices (2009, p. 722). Lallemand et al. replicated and extended the survey conducted by 

Law et al. in 2008. The results of this study largely confirmed previous findings. 

 

In regards with this thesis, a significant finding by Lallemand et al. was that the respond-

ents preferred evaluating Momentary UX, experienced during usage, over Episodic UX, 

which is assessed after usage. There was consensus among respondents that UX assess-

ment should occur "while interacting with an artifact." (2015, p. 44). Momentary UX is 

the time span where physiological tools, such as eye tracking software, are most likely 

to be utilized. Physiological measurement tools can provide continuous, instantaneous 

data during UX evaluation, while conventional evaluation methods may offer data only 

at particular moments in time (Georges et al., 2017, pp. 1–4; Zeng et al., 2009, pp. 39–

58). The resulting visual heatmaps have the ability to summarize and convey large quan-

tities of data quickly to the designer. Heatmaps can easily visualize various user interac-

tions, ranging from eye tracking and attention fixation and duration to touch interaction 

and cursor movement (Bojko, 2009, pp. 30–32; Novák et al., 2023, pp. 1–17). UX 

heatmaps can even have the ability to display the location of users' gaze throughout 

particular emotional and cognitive states (Georges et al., 2016, p. 4850; Yang & Qin, 

2021). 

 

Despite the advantages of physiological measurement tools and visual heatmaps, ac-

cording to Bojko (2009), visual heatmaps can “often be used incorrectly and for the 

wrong reasons”. Bojko asserts that issues may surface due to lack of appropriate data 

analysis or focus, and that "let's-track-and-see-what-happens" thinking is prevalent, 

even though this method has very limited usability (Bojko, 2009, pp. 37–39). While rec-

ognizing the utility of visual heatmaps in UXD, Bojko emphasizes the need to consider 



9 

that the appealing visuals and user-friendly appearance of visual heatmaps have the po-

tential to overwhelm designers, thereby impeding their effective utilization in design 

processes. Furthermore, the technology used to generate visual heatmaps has been rel-

atively expensive until very recently, limiting its predominant use to academic research 

(Georges et al., 2016, pp. 4850–4860). 

 

Recent studies have suggested that when used correctly, it is possible to advance UX 

design even when using inexpensive and readily attainable visual heatmap tools (Burger 

et al., 2018, pp. 1–3, 16; Georges et al., 2016, p. 4850). As with any novel technology, it 

is important to establish effective practices to ensure the quality of user interactions and 

the resulting quality of products and services (Souza et al., 2022, p. 646). According to 

Hussain et al. (2018, pp. 1–31), the best way to obtain useful results in UXD is by attaining 

a triangulation of physiological, self-reported, and observational measurement tech-

niques during UX assessment. In this way the data collected from one method can con-

firm findings from another or point towards the need for additional evaluation. In es-

sence, it has been suggested that optimal outcomes in UX evaluation are achieved when 

a combination of various implicit, explicit, and observational methods are employed. 

 

 

1.1 Research objective and methodology 

The objective of this thesis is to explore the attitudes of UX designers regarding the use 

of visual heatmaps as well as the adoption factors and effective methods associated in 

their use. This research objective will be analysed by answering the following three re-

search questions: 

 

- RQ 1: What attitudes do UX designers exhibit regarding the use of visual 

heatmaps in UXD? 

- RQ 2: What are the primary factors influencing the adoption or rejection of visual 

heatmaps in UXD? 



10 

- RQ 3: What are the effective methods that UX designers utilize when using visual 

heatmaps in UXD? 

 

Research data is collected through interviews conducted with UX designers. By employ-

ing thematic analysis, a widely used qualitative method, the research explores the recur-

ring themes and patterns within the interview data, contributing to the understanding 

of the role that visual heatmaps have in current UX design processes. 

 

 

1.2 Structure of the thesis 

This thesis is structured into six chapters. Following the introduction, chapters two and 

three provide the theoretical framework of this thesis: Chapter two examines the con-

cepts of UX and UXD, while chapter three focuses on the physiological tools used in UXD 

and the visual heatmaps generated by the utilization of this technology. Chapter four 

offers a detailed overview of the research methodology and process employed in this 

research. Chapter five discusses the research findings and conclusions. Finally, chapter 

six provides a discussion of the thesis, along with an analysis of the validity and reliability 

of the research and proposes future research avenues related to visual heatmaps. 



11 

2 User experience design 

Due to the multidisciplinary nature of UX that encompasses a variety of viewpoints rang-

ing from psychological to commercial, UX can be viewed as a phenomenon, field of study 

and as a practice (Roto et al., 2011, p. 3). As this thesis focuses mainly on the application 

of visual heatmaps within the realm of UX design,  the main focus is on UX as a part of a 

design practice, often referred to as user experience design (UXD) (Roto et al., 2011, pp. 

22–23). This chapter of the thesis aims to define the fundamental concepts within the 

field, describe the relevant previous research related to the topic, and present UXD as 

an integral element among the field of contemporary UCD. 

 

 

2.1 Defining user experience 

As a result of the rapid shift from traditional industries to an IT-driven economy, in the 

field of Human-computer interaction (HCI), devices along with their features multiplied 

in form and complexity (Castells, 2023, pp. 940–941). The digital transformation, that 

occurred during this period, led to an increasing number of people relying on digital de-

vices to perform various tasks and activities in their daily lives (Ho & Chung, 2020, pp. 

13–15; Khan et al., 2023, p. 275), and technology “spread from the workplace to our 

homes and everyday lives and culture” (Bødker, 2006, p. 1). Around the Millennium, user 

experience became a popular topic of the third wave of HCI as a component of the User 

Centred Design (UCD) approach (Arhippainen & Pakanen, 2013, pp. 80–86; Hassenzahl 

& Tractinsky, 2006, pp. 91–97; Roto et al., 2021, pp. 1–26).  

 

Aligning with the principles of UCD, UX gained a footing as a counterpart of the dominant 

and task-related usability paradigm, while early UX researchers aimed to identify more 

holistic key features that contribute towards people having a ‘good’ user experience, 

(Hassenzahl & Tractinsky, 2006, p. 91). UCD is an iterative design approach and philoso-

phy, that prioritizes users’ requirements throughout the design process. In order to un-

derstand and fulfil these needs, designers engage with users through a variety of UCD 



12 

research and design methodologies (Abras et al., 2004; Interaction Design Foundation, 

2016). UCD is closely related to the concepts of Design Thinking (DT) and Human Centred 

Design (HCD), as they share a common objective of prioritizing user needs and experi-

ences in the development of goods and services. While UCD and HCD are viewed as 

mindsets, DT is defined as an approach that combines users with business and technol-

ogy. In HCD mindset all people are seen as possible customers of a product, while in UCD 

a certain target set of users is the focus of the design process. At the core of each of 

these concepts are the user, problem solving an iteration (Göttgens & Oertelt-Prigione, 

2021; Kohli, 2022). The structure and relationship of the concepts of UCD, HCD, and DT 

is depicted in Figure 1. 

 

 

Figure 1: DT, UCD and HCD (Kohli, 2022). 

 

Donald Norman is often cited as being the first person to use the phrase "user experi-

ence" in the beginning of 1990s when he was employed by Apple (Lialina, 2016; Norman 

et al., 1995, p. 155). Norman wanted to emphasize the value of usability and UCD, and 

thereby created the classic definition for UX as encompassing “all aspects of the user’s 

interaction with the product: how it is perceived, learned, and used.” (Norman, 1999 as 

DT 

User,  

technology,  

business 

HCD 

All humans 

as users 

UCD 

Target 

user group 

User 

Problem solving 

Iteration 



13 

cited in Xu, 2012, p. 172). The second wave of HCI had replaced traditional methods with 

more proactive approach, e.g. participatory design workshops, emphasising groups us-

ing multiple applications in work settings, establishing communities of practice. It high-

lighted frameworks like situated action and distributed cognition. The third wave ex-

tended the scope of HCI to include a variety of new elements revolving around human 

live, incorporating more emotional, artistic, and cultural aspects into the design process. 

In terms of methodology, it adopted “more exploratory take-it-or-leave-it approach”, 

moving away from user-centricity in order to look for inspiration from use (Bødker, 2006, 

pp. 1–3). 

 

Especially in the beginning of the Millennium, there was a notable surge of interest in 

both academic and business domains surrounding the concept of UX. The degree of in-

terest was so significant that there were assertions UX could simply be a buzzword 

(Arhippainen & Pakanen, 2013, p. 80). In response, concerted efforts have been made 

to advance UX research, teaching, and practice through the delineation of UX (Roto et 

al., 2011, p. 4), leading to the exploration and discourse of various definitions and re-

search frameworks (Lallemand et al., 2015, p. 35; Law et al., 2009, pp. 719–728). The 

significance of human experiences has continued to escalate, as we have entered a 

“post-materialistic world, where people are investing in experiences rather than in ma-

terial possessions.” (Roto et al., 2021, p. 1). Furthermore, the perpetual evolution and 

expansive nature of the digital landscape have profoundly influenced the field of user 

experience, accentuating its relevance (Novák et al., 2023, p. 1). 

 

Although UX is now a commonly used and accepted concept in the field of HCI, it is note-

worthy that there is still no complete consensus regarding its definition (Buono et al., 

2020, pp. 6901–6914; Lallemand et al., 2015, p. 35). Some have disputed the benefits of 

UX over more well-established notions like usability, ergonomics, and user acceptance 

testing (UAT) (Barcenilla & Bastien, 2009, pp. 311–331). UX designers themselves have 

also concurred that the concept of UX is as multidimensional and challenging to define, 

yet concurring with the notion that the field of UX is part of the HCI domain and should 



14 

adhere to the principles of UCD (Lallemand et al., 2015; Law et al., 2009). The following 

chapter aims to present different facets UX. 

 

 

2.2 The facets of UX 

One of the most widely utilized frameworks in UX practice is the UX Honeycomb, devised 

by Peter Morville (Mansson et al., 2020, p. 2; Morville, 2004). This model was further 

adapted by Katerina Karagianni (2018), to present the practical aspects more clearly (Fig-

ure 2). In recent years, the utilization of the adapted model by Karagianni has become 

common, particularly in writings produced by industry professionals within the field. The 

honeycomb model enumerates seven elements that UX designers should take into con-

sideration. Morville placed these elements inside a honeycomb, with six hexagons sur-

rounding a central hexagon (Morville & Sullenger, 2010, pp. 33–38; Morville, 2004). After 

the adjustments by Karagianni, the facets of the UX Honeycomb model are findable, ac-

cessible, usable, desirable, credible, useful, and valuable; users are interacting with the 

product by thinking, feeling, and using (Mansson et al., 2020, pp. 1–17). 

 

 

 
 

Figure 2: UX honeycomb (adapted by Karagianni, 2018). 

Valuable

Credible

Desirable

Accessible

Usable

Findable

Useful

THINK FEEL 

USE 



15 

 

While the Honeycomb model offers a valuable tool for the practical tasks of UX designers, 

its utility may be limited due to the multidimensional and dynamic nature of the concept 

of UX. 

 

Another well-known model is the Facets of UX by Hassenzahl and Tractinsky (2006). In 

early 2000’s, Hassenzahl and Tractinsky paid attention to the momentum of the conver-

sation around UX and sought to chronicle the evolution of research related to UX. They 

claimed user experience to be a “strange phenomenon” (2006, p. 91), as it was rapidly 

being adopted as a key feature in the field of HCI, yet it was elusive in its definition.  

Hassenzahl claimed UX to represent a significantly expanded and separate viewpoint 

concerning the quality of interactive products (Hassenzahl, 2008, pp. 11–15). This also 

makes UX “a key competitive factor for product development.” (Davila et al., 2023, p. 3). 

Others argued for an integrative model, that would take into account the different roles 

of usability, ergonomics, accessibility and UX (Sauer et al., 2020). 

 

Hassenzahl and Tractinsky stated that “Perhaps the most intriguing question is how the 

overall quality or the ‘goodness’ of an interactive product is formed.” (Hassenzahl & 

Tractinsky, 2006, p. 93). To answer this question, Hassenzahl and Tractinsky concluded 

that UX encompasses three distinct facets that contribute to it, although none of them 

singularly captures the complete nature of UX. These facets were visually represented in 

a Venn diagram with three circles (Figure 3). 

 



16 

 

Figure 3: Facets of UX (adapted from Hassenzahl & Tractinsky, 2006, p. 95). 

 

Firstly, there is significance in holistic, aesthetic, and hedonic elements, that are not nec-

essarily instrumental for task completion by users. However, these beyond the instru-

mental factors such as beauty, surprise, and intimacy hold intrinsic importance in how 

users perceive quality, considerably enhancing usability and fostering a more inspiring 

and favourable user experience (Hassenzahl & Tractinsky, 2006, pp. 92–93). 

 

Secondly, human decision-making is heavily depended upon affect and emotions. While 

the primary objective of HCI traditionally aimed at avoiding frustration and dissatisfac-

tion, UX expands this objective further to not only prevent negative experiences but also 

emphasize fostering positive emotional outcomes such as enjoyment and fun from user 

interaction (Hassenzahl et al., 2010, pp. 353–362; Hassenzahl & Tractinsky, 2006, p. 93). 

 

Thirdly, according to Hassenzahl and Tractinsky, "the experiential perspective . . . empha-

sizes two aspects of technology use: its situatedness and its temporality." (2006, p. 94). 

Experiences are distinctive, formed through a blend of complex and dynamic factors, 

including users' temporally bound personal mood and goals, alongside the product's 

Holistic,
aesthetic,
hedonic

Subjective,
positive,

antecedents & 
consequences

Dynamic, 
complex, unique, 

situated, 
temporally-

bounded

UX 

The Experiential 

Emotion & affect 

Beyond the instrumental 



17 

state during usage. All these factors are interconnected, mutually influencing the final 

UX (Hassenzahl & Tractinsky, 2006, pp. 94–95). The distinct attributes, time perspective, 

and the nature that differentiates UX will be discussed in the following chapter of this 

thesis. 

 

 

2.3 Distinctiveness and time spans of UX 

The concept and definition of UX underwent further development in 2010, when thirty 

UX researchers and practitioners convened at Dagstuhl to explore various approaches, 

modelling techniques, and standardization efforts related to UX. The purpose of the sem-

inar was to produce a User Experience White Paper, forming a better consensus on the 

fundamental ideas of user experience. The paper states that UX can be comprehended 

as a phenomenon, an area of study, and as a practice. It sought to delineate that while 

usability and user interface (UI) design are both fundamental elements to UX, they rep-

resent distinct disciplines. UX distinguishes itself by not solely revolving around technol-

ogy but rather focusing on more human-centric aspects (Law et al., 2009, p. 719; Roto 

et al., 2011, pp. 1–26; Lallemand et al., 2015, p. 36). 

 

The white paper also acknowledged the fact that UX is strongly linked to a time perspec-

tive. Users may have pre-existing experiences that influence subsequent user experi-

ences indirectly. Likewise, user experience can continue to evolve indirectly after the 

user experience. It is advisable for a UX designer to consider the time spans of UX during 

the design phase in order to identify key areas that may need more of the designers 

attention. The white paper categorized four different time spans of UX (Figure 4): Antic-

ipated, Momentary, Episodic and Cumulative UX (Roto et al., 2011, pp. 5–9). Each time 

span delineates the nature of the associated user experience and the internal processes 

occurring during these distinct time spans.  

 

 

 



18 

 

When: Before usage  During usage  After usage  Over time 

What: 
Anticipated 

UX 
 Momentary 

UX 
 

Episodic  
UX 

 Cumulative 
UX 

How: 
Imagining  

experience 
 Experiencing  

Reflecting on 
an experience 

 
Recollecting 

multiple peri-
ods of use 

        
        

Figure 4: Time spans of UX. 

 

Concentrating on momentary UX during the usage can offer insight into an individual's 

emotional reactions concerning the specifics of the user interface (Roto et al., 2011, p. 

6). Momentary UX is the time span where physiological tools, such as eye tracking soft-

ware, are most likely to be utilized. At this stage, it is valuable to note that extending the 

interaction to encompass longer durations can reveal significant information about the 

overall user experience. For instance, a strong negative reaction during the early stages 

of use might lose significance if the user experience continues over an extended period, 

and the user later achieves better success. Considering this aspect, UX design and eval-

uation during the momentary experiences presents distinct challenges (Roto et al., 2011, 

pp. 1–12). 

 

 

2.4 UX design as a practice 

As previously described in this thesis, UX is a dynamic and subjective concept, leading to 

the absence of a singular correct approach in UX design and process. UXD as a practice 

and profession is therefore also a dynamic and subjective concept. However, there are 

also many aspects of UX on which there is widespread consensus among UXD profes-

sionals. E. g., a functional user experience that is focused on the principles of UCD pro-

cesses is largely seen as a key factor in successful user adoption (Burger et al., 2017, pp. 

1–17; Lallemand et al., 2015). 

 



19 

As humans have become more critically reliant on technology and devices, the emphasis 

on user experience design has led to notable progress in usability, accessibility, and in-

clusivity (Patrick & Hollenbeck, 2021, pp. 360–381; Wanka et al., 2023, pp. 177–180). UX 

designers are confronted with the challenge of crafting user experiences that are not 

only functional but also inclusive and attractive, all while being motivational and condu-

cive (Hegemann et al., 2023, pp. 1–5). 

 

Perspectives of UX designers within their own field have been explored in at least two 

comprehensive international surveys. These perspectives hold particular intrigue for this 

thesis, given that the research subjects are professionals working in the field. The first 

survey was conducted by Law et al. in 2009, followed by a replicated study by Lallemand 

et al. in 2015. In these studies, individuals working in the field as consultants, managers, 

and practitioners as well as researchers and students were asked questions. Their opin-

ions were sought on statements related e.g. to the definition and nature of UX. In this 

thesis, I focus on the research findings of Lallemand as they are more recent and the 

sample size of their research was larger compared to the earlier study by Law et al. from 

2009. However, I also examine how the results have evolved since the Law et al. study 

conducted in 2009. The 2009 study is of interest also because its largest proportion of 

respondents (48) operated in Finland (Law et al., 2009, p. 721). 

 

In their responses, industry professionals corroborated many previous studies within the 

field. The respondents agreed that temporal, contextual, and user-related variables are 

all important factors that influence UX, hence UX has a dynamic and subjective nature. 

However, differences in perspectives were also identified. Various background criteria, 

such as language, education, role in UX, as well as years of experience in UX, influenced 

the respondents' decisions on how to define UX. More experienced professionals were 

less likely to feel a need for a precise definition of UX in comparison to those with less 

experience in the field (Lallemand et al., 2015, pp. 38–47). 

 



20 

One of the key findings related to this thesis was that “Momentary UX (while interacting 

with an artifact) was favoured against Episodic UX (evaluated after usage).” (Lallemand 

et al., 2015, p. 46). As stated in the previous chapter discussing UX time spans, this is the 

time frame wherein physiological tools are most likely to be utilized. On the other hand, 

it is important to note that a more comprehensive customer or user “journey” thinking 

has gained more prominence in recent years (Cockbill et al., 2022, pp. 1915–1926; Roto 

et al., 2021, pp. 1–26). Although longitudinal study of user experience is laborious, Kujala 

et al. (2011, pp. 473–483) have introduced the UX curve method, which enables the ex-

amination of user experience concerning products already available on the consumer 

market. The data collected through this method can be utilized in the design of a new 

version or an entirely new product. 

 

 

2.5 UX methods and evaluation 

As emotions arise from conscious cognitive interpretations of perceptual-sensory re-

sponses, UX can be seen as a cognitive process that can be modelled and should be 

measured (Law et al., 2014, pp. 526–541). The field of HCI, from which UX has emerged, 

encompasses various methods of collecting information about human interaction. Some 

of these methods originate more from engineering sciences, while others stem e.g. from 

the humanities. UXD methods, tools, and measurements can vary significantly and are 

context-dependent, influenced by factors such as project objectives, requirements, re-

sources, and preferences. The inherent nature of UX also entails the continuous evolu-

tion of methods and tools within the field, which can pose a challenge to designers and 

other practitioners in the field (Lallemand et al., 2015, pp. 35–48; Matthews et al., 2012, 

pp. 1219–1228; Q. Yang et al., 2018, pp. 585–596). 

 

According to Hussain et al. (2018, p. 1) “UX is measured using different constructs related 

to usability (perspicuity, efficiency, etc.), user perception (stimulation, dependability, 

novelty, etc.), and human emotional reaction using various methods.” As UX is consid-

ered a challenging and dynamic concept that involves measuring human experiences 



21 

such as happiness and surprise, it is evident that consequently, the measurability of UX 

and the methods employed in UX practices are also subjective and context dependent 

(Law et al., 2014, pp. 526–541). UX related interactions are typically a mixture of “well-

observable user actions and cognitive processes, which are considerably more difficult 

to detect.” (Mussgnug et al., 2014, p. 1).  

 

The research findings from the research by Lallemand et al. (2015) did not reveal signif-

icant differences regarding whether UX should be approached through qualitative or 

quantitative means (2015, p. 43). The findings of Law et al. (2014) implied that qualita-

tive input allows for the creation of novel design concepts, while quantitative measures 

can be effective in persuading decision makers to accept adjustments to problematic 

designs (Law et al., 2014, pp. 526–541). According to UX practitioners, usability and UCD 

are unquestionably key cornerstones of user experience. Most respondents of the sur-

vey by Lallemand et al. agreed with the statement that usability is a “necessary precon-

dition for good UX”. While Lallemand et al. do not directly challenge this viewpoint up-

held by industry professionals, they suggest that a positive user experience could mani-

fest despite challenges in usability. Their implication stems from the recognition that el-

ements linked to UX, such as aesthetics or hedonic qualities, might significantly influence 

the perceived usability (Lallemand et al., 2015, p. 43). 

 

In 1998, Jakob Nielsen and Don Norman founded The Nielsen Norman Group (NN/g), 

which has emerged as a leading consulting firm in the field of user interface and user 

experience design. In addition to providing consulting services, the company also offers 

training programs and brings together professionals in the field (Nielsen Norman Group, 

n.d.). In 2022, experts Kelley Gordon and Christian Rohrer from NN/g developed a model 

to assist designers in determining the appropriate UX research method for different sit-

uations. This model consist of a three-dimensional framework where 20 often used UX 

research methods are placed based on three defining factors: attitudinal vs. behavioural, 

qualitative vs. quantitative and the context of product use (Gordon & Rohrer, 2022). 



22 

Based on this framework, usability testing and physiological measurement tools and the 

resulting heatmaps are seen to align more with the behavioural aspect, illustrating what 

people do, rather than the attitudinal aspect, which pertains to what people say. Con-

cerning qualitative and quantitative methods, these methods lean more towards quali-

tative approaches, addressing questions related to "why and how to fix." (Gordon & 

Rohrer, 2022). 

 

In UX related literature, there is often reference to what is known as UX maturity (Buis 

et al., 2023; Lallemand et al., 2015). In addition to the previously addressed framework, 

the Nielsen Norman Group has introduced “the 6 Levels of UX maturity” model, that 

assesses UX maturity though six levels. In this model, UX maturity encompasses various 

elements, including the organization's understanding of UX principles, integration of UX 

procedures into product development workflows, allocation of resources for UX research 

and design, alignment of UX objectives with overarching business goals, and the organi-

zation's ability to monitor and enhance UX outcomes over time. An organization with a 

high level of UX maturity demonstrates sophisticated UX processes and capabilities, 

leading to better-designed products and services, improved customer satisfaction, and 

ultimately, profitable operations (Pernice et al., 2021). 

 

The pinnacle of UX maturity is achieved at level six, where the organization operates in 

a user-driven manner, characterized by a dedication to UX at all six levels, resulting in 

exceptional user centred design outcomes (Pernice et al., 2021). To attain this level, there 

is a need for a profound understanding of users. Hussain et al. emphasize the perspective 

that by solely relying on any explicit and observational methods, UX designers are not 

able to understand the emotional introspection of the user and therefore might not fully 

“uncover the true user emotional experience." (Hussain et al., 2018, p. 2). Since UX 

methods, particularly physiological measurement tools and visual heatmaps, are at the 

core of the research in this thesis, they will be examined in the next chapter. 



23 

3 Physiological measurement tools and visual heatmaps 

The previous chapter of this thesis delved into the multifaceted and multidimensional 

nature inherent in the concept of UX and UX design. It is evident, that employing a tri-

angulation of UX methodologies, incorporating explicit, observational, and implicit 

methods, is more likely to yield successful outcomes. Therefore, in addition to traditional 

UX approaches, such as self-report questionnaires and user behaviour evaluation, the 

utilization of physiological measurement tools, along with the consequential data they 

generate, offers crucial supplementary information (Davila et al., 2023, pp. 3–17). 

 

Over recent years and decades, both the quantity and significance of devices, along with 

the range of daily tasks accomplished through their use, have significantly increased in 

both number and diversity (Castells, 2023, pp. 940–941). Additionally, in the field of UX 

design, one of the most significant changes in recent years has been the rise of mobile 

devices and applications, with user numbers on mobile surpassing those of traditional 

desktop devices (Guo et al., 2022, pp. 795–808). 

 

As a consequence to this digital transformation, the GUIs of devices have evolved to be-

come increasingly diverse and frequently more complex. In order to gather this infor-

mation, UX designers have at their disposal a variety of tools for web analytics, but one 

of the key aspects to understand is how users interact with the designed graphical user 

interface (GUI). Good interface design aims to ensure the high quality of the user expe-

rience (Souza et al., 2022, p. 646). Visual heatmaps, which are graphical representations 

depicting user movement and interaction on the interface, are designed specifically for 

this analytics purpose (Aviz et al., 2019; Bojko, 2009; Souza et al., 2022). 

 

Visual complexity of a user interface can have a significant impact on usability (Guo et 

al., 2022, p. 795) and there is a significant consensus among UX practitioners that good 

usability is a crucial component when creating a positive user experience (Buono et al., 

2020, pp. 6901–6914; Lallemand et al., 2015, pp. 35–48). These changes present 



24 

challenges for user experience designers, who must attempt to assess user experience 

for increasingly diverse audience and device spectrum. 

 

In this chapter, I will present physiological tools used to gather information from the in-

teractions of users, as well as the end results, the visual heatmaps. Due to the scope of 

the thesis, I will focus on presenting those physiological measurement tools that have 

the ability to create two-dimensional visual heatmaps, namely eye tracking and touch 

related interaction tools. Physiological measurement tools are presented in chapter 3.1. 

while visual heatmaps are the focus of chapter 3.2. 

 

 

3.1 Physiological measurement tools 

A wide range of different physiological measurement tools, devices, and software are 

available for creating UX heatmaps, that help UX designers to have a clear comprehen-

sion of possible issues and key areas of the user interface (Aviz et al., 2019; Souza et al., 

2022). These tools can range from affordable smartphone applications to more expen-

sive biometric sensors, that can measure a mixture of physiological and cognitive re-

sponses (Hussain et al., 2018, pp. 1–31; Novák et al., 2023, pp. 1–17; Valliappan et al., 

2020, pp. 1–12). These still emerging technologies are increasingly becoming integral 

part of novel product design and manufacturing  in industry 4.0 paradigm (Borgianni et 

al., 2018, pp. 192–196; Peruzzini et al., 2017, pp. 806–813). 

 

The most commonly used physiological tools, and the information generated from their 

use, are presented Table 1 (Georges et al., 2020, pp. 1–9; Hussain et al., 2018, pp. 1–31; 

Novák et al., 2023, pp. 1–17; Peruzzini et al., 2017, pp. 806–813). Biometric sensors serve 

as valuable tools to detect cognitive and emotional states, including user motivation, 

emotional arousal, stress levels, and visual attention. Conventionally, these instruments 

have found primary use in medical research, focusing on monitoring physiological met-

rics like heart rate (HR), electrocardiogram (ECG), electroencephalogram (EEG), and elec-

trodermal activity (EDA). Predominantly these measurements have aimed at 



25 

investigating diseases or potential anomalies in human health. In recent years, the utili-

zation of physiological tools in design has expanded significantly due to specialization in 

design as well as the widespread downsizing and cost reduction of many of these tech-

nologies (Peruzzini et al., 2017, pp. 806–813). 

 

Table 1: Commonly used physiological tools. 

Physiological tool Device Detected parameter Description 

Eye tracking Eye tracker Visual attention Monitors eye movements 
and gaze fixation 

Electroenceph-
alography (EEG) 

EEG Machine User engagement, 
emotional state 

Records brainwave activity 

Electrocardio-
gram (ECG) 

ECG Machine Stress levels, emo-
tional arousal 

Measures heart activity 

Galvanic Skin Re-
sponse (GSR) 

GSR Sensors Stress level, emotional 
arousal 

Measures skin conductance 
during emotional response 

Electromyography 
(EMG) 

EMG Machine Muscle tension, facial 
expressions 

Tracks muscle activity and 
response (e.g. hands or face) 

Respiration Rate 
Monitoring 

Respirometer 
or spirometer 

Relaxation, stress re-
sponse 

Measures breathing rate and 
volume 

 

One of the most difficult tasks in UX evaluation is to understand how the user genuinely 

feels when using an application, service, or system. What emotional and cognitive pro-

cesses does a user undergo when interacting with a designed service, such as a GUI.  

Even though it is often possible and quite easy to monitor external body signals for emo-

tion recognition, it is important to note that interpreting these signals requires expertise 

(Yang & Qin, 2021, p. 162198). 

 

Additionally, the diversity of available tools yet again poses a challenge to UX designers: 

What hardware and software are the best for each specific usage scenario and experi-

ment. Perhaps, this challenge is also one of the key reasons why Bojko states that the 

“let’s-track-and-see-what-happens” has been a popular approach, even though it has 

very limited true value in UX evaluation (Bojko, 2009, p. 37). If resources are unlimited, 

there is an opportunity in design to experiment and take risks, enabling the discovery of 

novel and unexpected findings. 

 



26 

The aforementioned technology enables UX designers to observe a variety of user be-

haviours, but the metrics most ideal to be used in UXD and presented by visual heatmaps 

are touch interaction, mouse movements and clicks in addition to eye tracking, and gaze 

attention, fixation and duration (Bojko, 2009, p. 30; Davila et al., 2023, pp. 3–17; Novák 

et al., 2023, pp. 1–17). 

 

Hussain et al. propose that best results in UX evaluation are achieved, when a triangula-

tion of observational, self-reported, and physiological measurement methods are em-

ployed. The data collected through one method in this manner can validate results ob-

tained from another method, or it may indicate the need for further research. Addition-

ally, inside these methodologies different blends can be used. E.g. eye tracking can be 

used in combination with EEG signals (Hussain et al., 2018, pp. 1–31). 

 

 

3.1.1 Eye tracking 

Traditional and rather simple eye tracking tools swiftly inform designers about where 

users look or focus during the user experience (Georges, Courtemanche, Sénécal, Léger, 

Nacke, & Pourchon, 2017, pp. 4850–4860). However, this may not always offer significant 

benefits to the designer, as it does not answer the question “why is the user focusing 

here” (Bojko, 2009, pp. 30–39; Georges et al., 2016, pp. 4850–4860). Georges et al. have 

pointed out, “the main obstacle to the use of physiological and behavioural signals re-

mains their reduced informative value when they are not specifically associated with 

user behaviour or interaction states.” (2016, p. 4851). They concur, that for both aca-

demic research as well as design purposes, the most intriguing outcome could be 

achieved by combining various physiological measurement tools. 

 

The purpose of eye tracking technology, as the name suggests, is to determine how us-

er's gaze behaves during the user experience. Through eye tracking, it is possible to iden-

tify, for instance, the specific areas where the user's gaze focuses for the longest period, 

how the user reads text or navigates through a user interface. With more precise eye 



27 

tracking technology, it is feasible to track aspects e.g. changes in pupil size during usage 

(Novák et al., 2023, pp. 1–17). Eye tracking technology can also be integrated with other 

physiological measurements that were listed earlier in Table 1. Consequently, this inte-

gration allows for more detailed insights into UX, such as information about the impact 

of specific visual contexts on stress levels or arousal (Hussain et al., 2018, pp. 1–31). 

 

While eye tracking technology has been in use for some time, recent technological ad-

vancements have introduced more accessible, lower-entry-barrier technology to the 

field (Peruzzini et al., 2017, pp. 806–813). Studies have indicated that even with more 

affordable technology, it has been possible to gather results that aid in identifying po-

tential issues in UX design (Burger et al., 2018, pp. 1–17) 

 

According to Novak et al. (2023, pp. 1–17), who conducted an extensive review of eye 

tracking research, "The use of eye tracking technology is a well-studied and functional 

approach to the evaluation of user experience." (p. 13). Their review also indicated a 

significant increase in the volume of research related to eye tracking over the past dec-

ade (p. 6). Approximately half of the studies selected by Novak et al. utilized eye tracking 

as a primary component within the UX evaluation workflow. A quarter integrated eye 

tracking within a more comprehensive evaluation approach, often in conjunction with 

various heuristics and interaction data. Most studies focused on assessing digital product 

UX, with external eye tracking devices commonly used. A smaller portion explored eye 

tracking in physical product design, mainly in automotive and medical industries. 

 

According to the review by Novak et al. (2023), the most commonly used eye tracking 

devices were the so-called standalone eye tracking sensors or cameras, which could be 

freely positioned depending on the needs of the test situation. Tobii company devices 

were the most utilized, which Novak et al. attributed to their user-friendly nature. While 

these devices may still be costly, Novak et al. noted, as previously mentioned in this work, 

that more affordable technology is becoming increasingly accessible. Although the more 

economical technology still lags behind in several aspects, it is continuously evolving. 



28 

These newer and more affordable technologies can already be employed in simple ways, 

for instance, using a smartphone, by using its built-in camera functionality. Some of the 

technology also utilize open-source software (Novák et al., 2023, pp. 6–9). 

 

 

3.1.2 Touchscreen interaction and cursor tracking 

In addition to eye tracking, heatmaps generated by tracking touchscreen interactions or 

cursor movements can offer UX designers analytics and insight about user behaviour. As 

previously mentioned in this thesis, the number of mobile users has surpassed that of 

traditional desktop users (Guo et al., 2022, pp. 795–808). As smartphones and tablets 

heavily rely on touch interactions, utilizing visual heatmaps generated through 

touchscreen interaction can be beneficial when evaluating the user experience of these 

devices. 

 

The user experience on a mobile devices notably diverges from that on a traditional 

desktop devices due to distinct and limiting factors such as screen size (Yang & Qin, 2021, 

pp. 162197–162213). Considerations related to user features, including left-handedness, 

hand size, and finger length in relation to the mobile screen dimensions, can significantly 

influence the overall user experience (Yang & Qin, 2021, p. 162209). In addition to these 

physical factors, UX designers must also possess the capacity to discern behavioural, 

emotional, and cultural user contexts, which include significant considerations like the 

fact that user gaze precedes touch. Both gaze and touch are also closely linked to human 

cognitive processes, including memory (Weill-Tessier & Gellersen, 2018). In order for UX 

design work to be of high quality, it is imperative that UX designers contemplate these 

variables in the design of user experiences (Guo et al., 2022, pp. 797–799; Weill-Tessier 

et al., 2016). 

 

Often, one advantage of the data collected through cursor tracking, touchscreens and 

smartphones is that, unlike the more typical eye tracking methods, this data can be col-

lected through many non-intrusive and unobtrusive methods (Yang & Qin, 2021, p. 



29 

162198). Due to their greater availability and affordability, mobile devices are utilized by 

a broader user base, that can result in more diverse data. Additionally, the update fre-

quency of mobile devices is typically higher than that of more traditional display devices, 

resulting in more up-to-date applications (Krafka et al., 2016, p. 2176).  

 

While the information collected from touchscreen interaction and cursor tracking  

sources can sometimes be used directly, ideally it should be used to complement and 

enrich insights gained from eye tracking or other UX methods (Ahrens, 2020, p. 434; 

Cegan & Filip, 2017; Park et al., 2011). According to Souza et al. (2022, p. 648) “Mouse 

and keyboard monitoring can provide a more complete view of the user experience un-

der high cognitive load such as decision making and for carrying out tasks.” 

 

 

3.2 Visual heatmaps 

To enhance user experience and make necessary changes to improve the usability of the 

graphical user interface (GUI), there are various tools available. Visual heatmaps, which 

display user actions in a two-dimensional graphical manner, have gained popularity in 

recent years. Visual heatmaps can take a variety of form. For instance, utilizing eye track-

ing allows the creation of fixation count and gaze duration heatmaps. Visual heatmaps 

depict areas of interest (AOI) using hot-to-cold colour patterns, visually displaying the 

regions that garnered the most user engagement (Davila et al., 2023; Jurkonytė, 2021; S. 

Khan, 2024). 

 

Heatmaps are extensively utilized due to their ability to efficiently condense copious 

amounts of data into a visually comprehensible format. Heatmaps have proved to be 

very effective owing to humans' innate inclination towards visual perception and our 

rapid understanding of colour significance rooted in cultural familiarity. For example, the 

gradation of colours from red denoting heat to cooler shades of blue can be recognizable 

without the need for explicit instructions (Engebretsen et al., 2020; Schloss et al., 2018, 

pp. 1–17). UX designer can benefit from visual heatmaps in several ways. They do not 



30 

only identify potential issues with the design but can also clarify various stages and ob-

jectives of the design process to different stakeholders. They in turn may lack the time 

for deep engagement with the design (Schall & Romano Bergstrom, 2014, pp. 67–70).  

 

Many heatmap tools streamline data manipulation: they serve as repositories for diverse 

forms of data collected from various sources, allowing for multifaceted processing and 

synchronization. This empowers designers to swiftly discern, for instance, the specific 

demographics or samples represented on the map (Georges et al., 2016, p. 4850). The 

main types of visual heatmaps used in UXD are described in Table 2 (sourced from Bojko, 

2009; Davila et al., 2023; Jurkonytė, 2021; S. Khan, 2024; Muhammad, 2017). 

 

Table 2: Main types of visual heatmaps used in UX design. 

Type of heatmap Description 

Click heatmaps Derives data from user clicks on a GUI. Number of clicks indicate 
higher user engagement.  One of the most commonly used 
heatmap tools. 

Scroll maps Depict the scrolling behaviour of website visitors, indicating 
how far user engage and scroll down though the website or 
other interface. Scroll map can indicate where users might lose 
interest. 

Hover heatmaps Indicate how users have moved in the GUI, usually by tracking 
touch on touchscreen or mouse and cursor movement. 

Eye tracking heatmaps Illustrates where the gaze of the user has been directed and 
how it has moved within the interface. 

 

The different categories of heatmaps can further include distinct subcategories. For ex-

ample, in eye tracking, visual heatmaps can be derived through absolute gaze duration 

or relative gaze duration heatmaps. The term movement heatmap can be used to de-

scribe several heatmaps derived from actions such as interface scrolling or cursor move-

ment and clicks. Further subcategories exist within these subcategories as well (Caposino, 

2023; S. Khan, 2023; Moran, 2017), and visual heatmaps can be categorized in various 

ways depending, e. g., on the perspective of design or the desired outcome of the design 

process (Jurkonytė, 2021; S. Khan, 2024; Muhammad, 2017; Sukumar, 2023). In recent 

years, there has been an increase in visual heatmaps produced by artificial intelligence 

(AI) (Jurkonytė, 2021). 



31 

4 Research method and process 

This chapter of the thesis presents the methodology and process of the research, includ-

ing the methods used for data collection and analysis. The purpose of this thesis was to 

understand the utilization of visual heatmaps by UX designers, examine their attitudes 

towards the heatmaps and related technical tools, and to assess the proficiency with 

which UX designers interpret data derived from visual heatmaps. 

 

To gather the perspectives of the designers, qualitative data was gathered through ten, 

semi-structured interviews. This number of interviewees was deemed sufficient for en-

suring the validity of the results (Guest et al., 2006; Nowell et al., 2017). Questions and 

topics were prepared in advance, but there was also room for improvised questions aris-

ing from the interviewee's response (Myers & Newman, 2007, pp. 2–26). Thematic anal-

ysis was used to analyse the interview transcripts. 

 

 

4.1 Qualitative interviews 

According to Myers & Newman, “the qualitative interview is the most common and one 

of the most important data gathering tools in qualitative research” (2007, p. 3). They 

assert that qualitative interviews allow us to explore the underlying aspects of various 

phenomena and research problems. Indeed, qualitative methodology is particularly em-

ployed in situations where the subject of study is complex and intricate (Tong et al., 2007, 

p. 349). Given that the topic of this thesis deals with a complex phenomenon, this 

method is well-suited for the subject matter. 

 

When utilizing qualitative methodology, it is crucial to be mindful of specific common 

pitfalls often associated with this approach (Kallio et al., 2016). The primary challenges 

frequently arise from the social interaction that is the essence of the qualitative inter-

views, hence there is significant room for human errors. Common pitfalls include lack of 

time, lack of trust as well as the artificial nature of the interview, given that the 



32 

interviewer and interviewee are most often complete strangers to one another (Myers 

& Newman, 2007; Tong et al., 2007). 

 

According to Myers and Newman, merely being aware of the potential issues is advisable 

(Myers & Newman, 2007, pp. 3–5). For ensuring quality and avoiding errors, it is also 

recommended to utilize established frameworks and methodologies in conjunction with 

the method (Tong et al., 2007). To address possible challenges, Myers and Newman have 

established seven guidelines and a dramaturgical model for conducting qualitative inter-

view in the field of IS related research (Myers & Newman, 2007, p. 11). These guidelines 

and the dramaturgical model serves as the framework for the interviews conducted in 

this thesis. 

 

To maintain openness and flexibility regarding the discussion and topic, interview 

themes were structured beforehand, but the specific questions varied in each interview 

depending on the direction the interviewee took the conversation. Interview themes are 

depicted in Table 3 and examples of interview questions are presented in appendix 1. 

 

Table 3: Interview themes. 

Theme Description 

UXD as a profession Perspective on what UX and UXD entail. 

UX tools and methods UX tools and methods in use. 

UX heatmaps Experience and perspectives on heatmaps. 

Future of UX Perspective on the future of the industry. 

 

In the dramaturgical model, the entirety of the qualitative interview is seen as a theatri-

cal performance, complete with actors, a script, and props. The interviewer's objective 

is to cultivate a relaxed and empathetic atmosphere, in which the interviewee feels at 

ease to openly disclose information. The interviewer should aim to highlight the inter-

viewee's personality and thoughts, keeping their own personality and thoughts to a 

lesser prominence during the interview. The interviewer functions somewhat like a di-

rector, striving to showcase the interviewee's brilliance in their performance. To accom-

plish this, the interviewer should strive to clearly articulate the interview's purpose, 



33 

while avoiding overly steering toward a specific personal agenda. To foster openness in 

the interview, the interviewee should not feel any fear of embarrassment or the possi-

bility of being taken advantage of (Myers & Newman, 2007, pp. 12–14). 

 

To ensure that the interviewees understand the purpose of the interviews, the objectives 

of the thesis were communicated already in the interview invitations. These objectives 

were reiterated at the beginning of each interview. The participants were recruited via 

mailing lists, social media, and word of mouth. To identify additional interviewees, in-

sights were sought from individuals already interviewed, employing the snowballing 

method (Myers & Newman, 2007, p. 14). The “stage”, in which the interviews were con-

ducted remotely, was Microsoft Teams. Conducting interviews remotely presents its 

own challenges in creating a comfortable atmosphere; however, it may also offer ad-

vantages, as the interviewees may feel most comfortable in their own familiar and infor-

mal environment. Additionally, it was possible to find interviewees regardless of their 

physical location (Iacono et al., 2016, pp. 1–15; Myers & Newman, 2007, pp. 1–26). 

 

Both the interviewer and the Interviewees are seen as the actors as well as the audience 

in the dramaturgical model. According to Myers and Newman, the interviewer should 

demonstrate interest in the interviewee and their thoughts, striving to show as much 

empathy as possible. To accomplish this, special attention was given to active listening 

during the interviews for this thesis. The interviewer also aimed to identify aspects of 

the interviewee that were left unspoken: their attitude toward the themes emerging in 

the interview, various gestures, and facial expressions. For this reason, it was crucial that 

during the remotely conducted interview, in addition to the microphone, the camera was 

also activated throughout the interview. This was instructed to the participants in ad-

vance. The interviewer dressed appropriately for the occasion and took the time to thor-

oughly understand the interviewee's background, role, and organizational context be-

fore conducting the interviews (Myers & Newman, 2007, p. 13–15). 

 



34 

Each participant underwent a single interview session, which lasted a maximum of ap-

proximately 60 minutes. The semi-structured interview method offered the essential 

flexibility for the interview, while also enabling the effective coverage of key topics within 

a well-defined timeframe for each interviewee (Gill et al., 2008, pp. 201–216). The inter-

viewees presented a diverse group of UX designers, who already had at least some  rel-

evant work-life experience in the field of UX design. It was not deemed necessary for the 

designers to have extensive experience in the use of visual heatmaps, but this was seen 

as a benefit for the depth of the interview. The diversity of the interviewees was a goal 

that was achieved successfully. The interviewees represented well different genders, age 

groups, and levels of experience. This diversity optimized the triangulation of subjects 

(Myers & Newman, 2007, p. 17). 

 

 

4.2 Thematic analysis 

According to Braun and Clarke, thematic analysis is the first technique in qualitative anal-

ysis that researchers should familiarize as it teaches several basic skills. It is also a highly 

flexible method, which presents both an advantage and a challenge for the researcher. 

Precaution should be exercised to prevent the method from being completely unstruc-

tured (Braun & Clarke, 2006, pp. 77–101). One way that was used to avoid total disorder 

was through the use of the interview themes. This ensured that each interview covered 

the same issues, while also allowing for more improvised and in-depth questions. The 

six phases of thematic analysis presented by Braun and Clarke (2006) were used to iden-

tify the main themes and create connections between them. These phases are presented 

in Table 4. 

 

Table 4: Phases of thematic analysis (Braun & Clarke, 2006, pp. 77–101). 

Phase Description 

1. Familiarizing your-
self with your data. 

Transcribing data (if necessary), reading and re-reading the data, 
noting down initial ideas. 

2. Generating initial 
codes. 

Coding interesting features of the data in a systematic fashion across 
the entire data set, collating data relevant to each code. 



35 

Phase Description 

3. Searching for 
themes. 

Collating codes into potential themes, gathering all data relevant to 
each potential theme. 

4. Reviewing themes. Checking if the themes work in relation to the coded extracts (Level 
1) and the entire data set (Level 2), generating a thematic ‘map’ of 
the analysis. 

5. Defining and nam-
ing themes. 

Ongoing analysis to refine the specifics of each theme, and the over-
all story the analysis tells, generating clear definitions and names for 
each theme. 

6. Producing the re-
port. 

The final opportunity for analysis. Selection of vivid, compelling ex-
tract examples, final analysis of selected extracts, relating back of 
the analysis to the research question and literature, producing a 
scholarly report of the analysis. 

 

Upon the completion of the interviews, each interview was transcribed using the auto-

matic transcription tool in Microsoft Teams. These transcriptions were made to facilitate 

coding and thematic analysis of the material. The interview transcripts were organized 

using the qualitative data analysis software NVivo 14. It was possible to review and rear-

range the codes and interview material multiple times through NVivo, during the approx-

imately one-month-long interview period. 

 

In the first stage of the analysis, the interview material was transcribed into Word-files, 

anonymized, and read at glance in order to create preliminary conclusions. This stage 

was conducted immediately after each interview had been concluded. After the first 

three interviews, the material was imported to NVivo, where preliminary codes were 

created, following Braun and Clarke’s instructions for the second phase of the analysis. 

Subsequently, material from each interview was imported into NVivo and coded imme-

diately after the interview. In the initial stages of the analysis, there were nearly a hun-

dred codes in NVivo.  

 

From these codes, it was possible to proceed to the third phase, which involved identi-

fying preliminary themes. At this stage, codes were organized into multiple levels. The-

matic analysis was further facilitated using Excel in addition to NVivo, and proceeded to 

phases four and five, which were carried out cyclically throughout the interviews. The 

aim was to adhere to the idea presented by Braun and Clarke, that thematic analysis is 



36 

a “more recursive process, where movement is back and forth as needed, throughout 

the phases” (Braun & Clarke, 2006, p. 86). 

 

Writing is a pivotal component of the thematic analysis. Hence, it was an ongoing activity 

as the research progressed. It was not a process that occurred only after the completion 

of all research work, as in statistical analyses, but rather coding commenced already once 

the initial interviews were completed. This allowed for an organic emergence of ideas 

and potential themes as the work unfolded. The final themes were named during stage 

six, conducted during the writing of the final report. In the final report, there were ulti-

mately three overarching themes. 

 

Through the analysis, three main themes emerged, the first pertaining to the attitudes 

of UX designers, the second to adoption factors, and the third to effective methods. 

These themes further divided into eleven subthemes. Regarding attitudes, the themes 

also divided further into six different subthemes. Final themes are presented in Table 5. 

 

Table 5: Themes and their concluding chapters in the thesis. 

Main theme Subtheme Further subtheme Chapter 

Attitudes of UX 
designers 
towards 
utilization of 
visual heatmaps 

Raincloud 
attitude 

Scepticism in utilization 5.2.1.1 

Anxiety over resources 5.2.1.2 

Fear of drawing false conclusions 5.2.1.3 

Sunshine 
attitude 

Appreciation of visual representation 5.2.2.1 

Enthusiasm with new methods and 
technology 

5.2.2.2 

Curiosity towards surprising results 5.2.2.3 

Influential 
factors in 
heatmap 
utilization 

Strength of existing design principles, tools, and platforms 5.3.1 

Limited resources 5.3.2 

Privacy concerns 5.3.3 

Objectivity of heatmaps 5.3.4 

Effective 
methods 

Use as part of a triangulation 5.4.1 

Verifying and  validating existing results 5.4.2 

Seeking solutions for complex design cases 5.4.3 

Gaining stakeholder approval 5.4.4 

Enhancing customer journey design 5.4.5 

 

 



37 

Within the spectrum of designer attitudes, scepticism, anxiety, and fear were observed, 

forming the "Raincloud attitude" theme. Contrarily, an appreciative attitude, enthusiasm, 

and interest towards visual heatmaps and their utilization constituted the "Sunshine at-

titude" theme. Concerning adoption factors, the subthemes included trust in existing 

methods and tools, resource constraints, privacy concerns, and the objectivity of 

heatmaps. As for effective methods, the themes encompassed integration of heatmaps 

as part of a triangulation of various tools and methods, verification and validation, un-

covering solutions in unorthodox and complex design cases, instrumentality in seeking 

stakeholder approval, and incorporation into customer journey design. The results of the 

thematic analysis will be presented in more detail in the following chapter. 



38 

5 Results 

This chapter of the thesis presents the results of the qualitative interviews and thematic 

analysis. Chapter 5.1. describes the interviewees, their experience, education, and back-

ground at a general level. The following chapters are then divided according to the re-

search questions of this thesis. Chapter 5.2 focuses on the attitudes of UX designers to-

wards heatmap tools. Chapter 5.3 addresses the factors that influence the utilization of 

heatmap tools in UX. Finally, chapter 5.4 discusses methods and practices related to 

heatmap tools. The research questions of the thesis are answered by reflecting on the 

results emerging from the interviews within the theoretical framework of the study, 

which was introduced in the preceding chapters two and three of this thesis. The results 

are presented through the utilization of anonymized direct quotations (P1–P10). 

 

Ten individuals participated in the interviews. Interviews were conducted during January 

and February 2024 using Microsoft Teams. During the interviews, both the interviewee 

and the interviewer kept their cameras on at all times, although in one interview, the 

video connection was interrupted due to technical issues. Technical difficulties like con-

nectivity problems and audio or video quality issues were experienced in some of the 

interviews, but for the most part, these issues were avoided and they only lasted for a 

short period of time. With the exception of one interview, all interviews were conducted 

in Finnish, although many interviewees used English terms extensively alongside Finnish 

when discussing technology and methods in the UX industry. However, the anonymized 

quotations in this work were largely translated from Finnish to English. 

 

 

5.1 Participants background 

The interviewed individuals primarily possessed extensive and varied experience in a 

range of UX design-related tasks. There was variation in the relevance of their work ex-

perience, field of education, current industry, and length of their career. The participants 



39 

of the study, along with their anonymized code and background information, are de-

tailed in Table 6. 

 

Table 6: Interview participants and their background. 

 

Each of the ten interviewees had at least some insight or experience with visual 

heatmaps. Three interviewees were actively using heatmaps in their current work. Four 

had utilized heatmaps in previous positions but were currently inactive in their use. 

Three interviewees had limited experience with heatmaps, meaning they understood 

what heatmaps are either through their education or past work experience, but they did 

not possess any practical experience of their use in UX. 

 

 

5.1.1 Education and work experience 

Given the relatively recent emergence of the term user experience, the educational 

backgrounds of the more experienced participants did not typically encompass formal 

training specifically related to UX design. Instead, many respondents pursued further 

education in UX later in their careers, while others acquired relevant knowledge and 

skills through work experience. This is evident in example (1). 

 
(1) At the turn of the millennium, there were no systematic or advanced design 

courses available in my university. -- Instead, it has been more of a learning 
process through work experience, trial and error. (P8) 

 

Code UX experience Main field of study Industry Use of heatmaps 

P1 Under 10 years Technology Software Limited experience 

P2 Under 10 years Humanities Consulting Inactive use 

P3 Under 10 years Humanities Consulting Active use 

P4  Under 10 years Business Media Limited experience 

P5 10 to 20 years Technology Internet Inactive use 

P6 10 to 20 years Humanities Internet Active use 

P7 10 to 20 years Technology Consulting Limited experience 

P8 Over 20 years Technology Software Active use 

P9 Over 20 years Humanities Consulting Inactive use 

P10 Over 20 years Humanities Consulting Inactive use 



40 

For many participants, particularly those with a background in humanities, entry into the 

field occurred through initial work positions where their interest in technology or digital 

tools and methods became more prominent than before. This is evident in example (2). 

 

(2) At first, I was involved in more traditional design-related work within product 
development. Then, I ended up working specifically in digital channels. The 
opportunity arose, as others perceived the work as a necessary evil at the time. 
I noticed that these were actually projects where I could do much more design 
work, meaning I could genuinely design processes and think about content. (P3) 

 
Those interviewees, who had entered the UX industry more recently, possessed more 

specialized training tailored to UX related tasks and methodology, e.g. usability testing 

and eye tracking. Nevertheless, the majority of the interviewees had been drawn to the 

industry due to their personal interests and, to some extent, fortuitous circumstances. 

This again reflects the dynamic nature of the industry, where stabilization and establish-

ment has only begun to manifest more recently (Hassenzahl et al., 2010; Roto et al., 2011; 

Varsaluoma, 2018). 

 

 

5.1.2 Perception of the UX industry and its recent development 

The dynamic nature and more recent stabilization of the industry, discussed in the pre-

vious chapter, was echoed by most interviewees, particularly those with more experi-

ence. By experiencing a variety of roles and positions in the industry, they had firsthand 

experience of the industry’s long-term development. One of the interviewees described 

how the change has occurred slowly and as a bottom-up process. This is evident in the 

example (3). 

 
(3) User-centred design has developed tremendously over the past twenty years -- 

It has been a process of bottom-up collaboration, so that even internally, there 
is understanding that attention must be paid to users. (P9) 

 
This progress was seen as a positive phenomenon by the respondents. Despite this im-

provement, almost all respondents believed that there is still need for development re-

garding industry recognition and UX maturity. Even the more experienced UX designers 



41 

had experiences where their expertise in design had been questioned in an unprofes-

sional way by stakeholders. Often this opposition stemmed from the individual personal 

preferences of the stakeholders. The attitude towards UX and UCD in general varied 

greatly depending on the broader corporate culture. One of the respondents stated that 

the UX maturity level in Finnish companies falls within the range of 2 to 3. This is evident 

in example (4). 

 
(4) Considering the Nielsen Norman Group's UX maturity model, it's unlikely that 

Finnish organizations are above levels 2 or 3, indicating that there is still much 
work to be done in this regard. (P5) 

 
Many interviewees noted that UX and UCD have emerged as topics that are raised even 

by clients during projects, and they are increasingly recognized for their positive impact 

on sales. This is evident in example (5). 

 
(5) It is something I have been striving to emphasize strongly within our company, 

so user-centricity is a key value proposition that we discuss with our clients in 
new sales or account development. (P6) 

 
Nearly all respondents recognized the phenomenon addressed by Cockbill et al. (2022, 

pp. 1915–1926), regarding the ongoing development in the tech industry towards holis-

tic service journey thinking, which brings UXD closer to service design (SD). Some re-

spondents had experienced a shift in their job descriptions, transitioning from their pre-

vious role as UX designer to service designer. While some viewed this development with 

mild scepticism, majority believed that it is of no importance, as long as user experience 

is taken into account as a fundamental design principle and cultivated in high quality. 

 

 

5.2 Attitudes of UX designers towards utilization of visual heatmaps 

The first research question of this thesis examined the attitudes exhibited by UX design-

ers regarding the use of visual heatmaps in UXD. Thematic analysis revealed a spectrum 

of views and attitudes among the interviewed designers, ranging from more negative 

attitudes and scepticism to more positive attitudes and optimism regarding the 



42 

utilization of heatmaps. The classic idiom "Is the glass half empty or half full?" could 

reflect these perspectives. In the thematic analysis of this study, different aspects and 

extremes of attitudes have been described using the terms "Raincloud attitude" and 

"Sunshine attitude." These terms aptly depict attitudes, as they include reflection and 

expectation with regards to potential conditions and concerns. 

 

Through the analysis, it was observed that only one interviewee positioned themselves 

entirely on the negative end of the spectrum, while one designer leaned entirely towards 

the positive attitude side. The remaining interviewees represented a mixture of different 

factors and themes on different parts of the spectrum. The following chapters 5.2.1 and 

5.2.2 describe the results and analysis related to these attitudes. 

 

 

5.2.1 Raincloud attitude 

During the thematic analysis, more cautious, sceptical, and negative attitudes were cat-

egorized under the theme of Raincloud attitude. Nine out of ten interviewed designers 

exhibited at least some level of this negative and more cautious attitude towards 

heatmap tools and their utilization. Designers with a more technical education seemed 

to lean slightly more towards scepticism regarding the utilization and value of heatmap 

tools. They preferred the use of existing tools and felt confident in the use of well-estab-

lished UX methods. In regard to this attitude, three subthemes emerged during the the-

matic analysis, which are described in the following three subchapters. 

 

 

5.2.1.1 Scepticism in utilization 

The predominant concern raised by the interviewees centred around the uncertainty 

regarding the appropriate timing, methodology, and phase within the design process on 

when to effectively utilize different heatmap tools. As example (6) demonstrates, 



43 

designers attitude could initially be quite optimistic towards heatmap technology, but 

later turned more sceptical when they analysed the utilization in greater detail. 

 
(6) When I first read about these tools, I initially thought they could be a really cool 

thing. But already as I read more, I was sceptical about them. Like, why and to 
what extend to use them? And because UX designers find it sometimes hard to 
understand even what UX is, it's important to have focus on what truly matters. 
(P1) 

 
On several occasions, interviewees suggested that their knowledge about heatmap tools 

might be inadequate or outdated. Even if this was not explicitly stated by the interviewee, 

there appeared to be a prevailing inclination towards the notion that satisfactory out-

comes could be achieved without the utilization of any heatmap tools. Therefore, there 

was reluctancy to invest any time into exploring the potential use of heatmap tools. 

 

The interviewees cited numerous commonly used alternative data gathering and design 

methods, e.g. user surveys and interviews, user shadowing, and simulation-based design. 

Many believed that, at best, heatmaps could offer only marginal additional insight of 

users in comparison to these methods. At worst, they feared that the use of heatmaps 

could lead to erroneous conclusions or result in inefficient use of time and resources. 

These concerns are evident in examples (7) and (8). 

 
(7) If the wrong tool is used, incorrect conclusions are drawn. If one lacks experience 

or hasn't seen how the selected tools work, it often feels like user research is 
conducted just for the sake of it. I strongly believe that the hypotheses we want 
to investigate should be kept firmly in mind, and the methodology should be 
chosen based on how cost-effectively and accurately we can obtain the right 
answers to those questions. (P8) 

 
(8) In large part what was observed from the Hotjar mouse movement and click data 

had already been known from server statistics. There wasn’t any significant 
surprises emerging from there. (P5) 

 
There was variation in the tools used to generate heatmaps. Most experience was asso-

ciated with visual heatmaps generated from the data of cursor movement or touch in-

teraction, while experiences with heatmaps derived from eye tracking were less com-

mon. Experiences with eye tracking tools were typically gained during formal education, 

although five participants had also applied eye tracking in their work projects. 



44 

 

The interviewees who had more experience with heatmaps also expressed criticism re-

garding their utility. In terms of tools used for gathering heatmaps and other user behav-

iour and insight analytics, Google Analytics and Hotjar were most frequently mentioned. 

Currently, two of the interviewees were incorporating heatmaps generated from eye 

tracking into their work projects. The diversity in technology and methods was also a 

leading cause of anxiety over resources, a theme analysed in the next chapter. 

 

 

5.2.1.2 Anxiety over resources 

UX designers must possess knowledge in a variety of tools and methods and strive to 

comprehend the requirements of the customer thoroughly. Understanding the needs of 

the customer can often be one of the most challenging parts of a design project, espe-

cially in the initial stages of the assignment. According to the interviewed designers, the 

clients and other stakeholders may not always explicitly know what they want. The client 

e.g. may only have a vague idea of the desired outcome and a list of problems to be 

addressed, which the UX designer and design team set out to solve. Often, the challenge 

arises when the resources and implementations required to address the problems sur-

prise the client and do not align with their expectations. 

 

Due to the complexity of the problems to be solved, throughout the interviews, partici-

pants discussed a range of technical tools that they must be able to use. While many 

hesitated to name specific technology, they underscored that the dynamic nature of a 

UX designer's toolkit means that technical tools can evolve and change rapidly over time. 

This is evident in example (9). 

 
(9) The tools depend entirely on what the project is and at what stage it is in. – For 

example, currently I use Figma for drawing, but these tools change every year. 
(P10) 

 
The extensive variety of technology, tools, and methods combined with their dynamic 

nature as well as difficulties with stakeholder communication can cause pressure, 



45 

especially for less experienced UX designers. This pressure of making mistakes, losing 

efficiency and possibly wasting resources was highlighted in some of the interviews. If 

designer employs a method or technology that does not significantly benefit the project, 

there is a risk of deviating from the intended direction, wasting resources, or obtaining 

incorrect or irrelevant results. This situation is evident in example (10). 

 
(10) We have sometimes had workshops underway, and already during them we 

realize that we are not getting any useful answers. I have thought that I cannot 
use any of these answers, there is no point in them. (P1) 

 
In addition to the complexity of the work and technology in use, the uncertainty sur-

rounding the appropriate utilization of heatmap technology, discussed in chapter 5.2.1.1, 

also raised the fear that limited design resources might be wasted. It is noteworthy, that 

the efficiency mindset was not only driven by performance pressures derived from stake-

holders but was also frequently adopted by designers themselves, especially those with 

a more technical background. As is evident from example (11), they felt that dedicating 

time and resources to experimentation is not worthwhile. 

 
(11) Cost-benefit analysis must be considered. – what insights can be gained from 

this? Regarding eye tracking, the cost of implementing such a system, acquiring 
data, and determining the necessary repetitions for reliable data are all factors 
to be considered. How can I justify the costs to a client, when I am myself 
sceptical about its worthiness. (P7) 

 
The concern over resources was voiced by both designers actively utilizing heatmaps and 

those with inactive use. It is important to note that the concern over resources was not 

solely related to the use of tools, methods, and technology, but often arose in interviews 

while participants contemplated the general trend towards increased efficiency in work 

life. 

 

 

5.2.1.3 Fear of drawing false conclusions 

Half of the interviewees mentioned in their responses that designers might derive false 

positives and inaccurate conclusions from heatmaps. Consequently, they at least 



46 

partially echoed Bojko's (2009, p. 31) perspective that the attractive and intuitive visual 

presentation of heatmaps can hinder designers from critically evaluating the information 

they convey. 

 

This line of thinking can be understood as a fear, in the sense that respondents were not 

always able to directly verbalize or justify why such a situation could arise. While the 

interviewees expressed concern, they lacked direct experiences where instances of false 

positives had manifested. This fear and the associated uncertainty around it is illustrated 

by example (12). 

 
(12) I see that the use of these tools might lead to false positives or otherwise 

inaccurate results. Yeah, well, I actually don't know much about this, so I can't 
say for sure, but I would guess so. (P1) 

 
Given the numerous mentions on the issue of False positives, it is clear that the notion 

should be regarded as a real problem rather than only an attitude. Most of those who 

raised the issue had several years of experience in the field and were highly educated. 

Their assessment was based on an informed perspective, even if they did not have direct 

experience with the situation. 

 

Several interviewees also mentioned that overly positive thinking can arise from the fact 

that the technology in use, especially in laboratory-level user testing, is often so novel 

that it captivates both the test participants and the testers. One interviewee recounted 

a situation where the visual allure of heatmaps became very apparent. The company's 

management and client showed such high levels of enthusiasm for the technology and 

its outcomes that, according to the interviewee, this enthusiasm might have impeded 

the stakeholders' judgment regarding the accurate analysis of the results. Many other 

interviewed designers echoed this account by sharing their experiences regarding how 

enthusiastically especially biometric sensors and eye tracking technology was initially 

embraced. This is evident in example (13). 

 
(13) In my company the thinking was like ‘we love eye tracking -- because it tells us 

everything about user behaviour’. I left from that experience thinking like 



47 

‘everything's amazing’. But afterwards I learned more by myself and thought 
maybe I shouldn't trust all the bits of this technology. (P2) 

 
One reason for somewhat more sceptical attitudes could also be negative experiences 

with heatmap technology. One of the more experienced interviewees noted that 

heatmap technology has evolved significantly in recent years, and as a result, not all UX 

designers may necessarily be aware of the new opportunities it offers. Interestingly, the 

same visual appeal that was criticized as a negative aspect in heatmaps was also seen as 

perhaps their greatest asset. The following chapters will present these positive attitudes 

and emotions regarding the utilization of heatmaps. 

 

 

5.2.2 Sunshine attitude 

The positive attitudes and emotions towards the use of heatmap technology  was named 

as Sunshine attitude in this thesis. Nine out of ten interviewed designers exhibited at 

least some level of this positive attitude towards heatmap tools and their utilization. 

Those with background in humanities showed slightly more optimistic views towards the 

use of heatmaps. 

 

The attitudes and emotions that leaned more positively towards heatmaps mentioned 

the potential of vivid visuals and the exploratory, unexpected nature of the results de-

rived from the utilization of heatmaps. They also highlighted aspects concerning visual 

aesthetics, user-friendliness and intuitiveness as well as the objective nature and novelty 

of heatmap technology. Additionally, the technology was perceived as fostering inspira-

tion and the idea of experimentation in a constructive manner. Its capacity to stimulate 

and engage design teams, user testing participants, and other stakeholders was also 

acknowledged. 

 

 



48 

5.2.2.1 Appreciation of visual representation 

Many of the respondents concurred with Bojko's (2009, pp. 30–39) perspective, that the 

potency of heatmaps stems from their ability to convey extensive datasets swiftly and 

effortlessly in visual format. Heatmaps utilize intuitive colouring, ranging from warm reds 

to cool blues, and at least in western culture people have learned to associate these 

colours with temperature from a young age. 

 

Several tools and technologies employed in generating heatmaps are readily adaptable 

with relatively small barriers to entry. This is particularly true concerning technologies 

associated with cursor movement and click as well as touch interaction heatmaps, which 

are frequently integrated and available in leading data analytics and customer insight 

tools. Heatmaps convey a highly tangible and visually accessible message, with out-

comes often obviating the need for extensive analysis and justification. This makes them 

easily applicable in certain situations where there is a need to discuss and justify UX 

decisions with stakeholders who are not themselves industry professionals. These per-

spectives are evident in example (14). 

 
(14) From my perspective, heatmaps are quite straightforward tools to offer to clients 

because the message they convey is so concrete and visual. Plus, they can be 
created using relatively lightweight tools and processes. (P6) 

 
As comprehending and interpreting heatmaps can be accomplished effortlessly and with 

minimal cognitive exertion, there is no necessity to acquire new skills specifically for un-

derstanding their visual representation (Bojko, 2009, p. 30). This feature, along with the 

potential for rapid internalization of information, was underscored by the interviewees, 

as is evident in example (15). 

 
(15) In my experience, almost the same insights can be derived from other forms of 

data analytics. But with heatmaps, it's perhaps about hundred times faster to 
internalize data. They serve as an effective visualization tool. (P8) 

 
Several respondents, who emphasized the visually derived benefits of heatmaps, had 

received education related to visual art, or they had interests and hobbies related to 



49 

visual pursuits. When questioned about the nature of UX design, they more frequently 

employed terms such as invention and creation. 

 

One of the most experienced interviewees, who had also served as a team leader, per-

ceived it as a significant advantage when design teams are comprised of both more tech-

nical and more visually minded designers. The differences in educational and work ex-

perience backgrounds can manifest in projects as distinct mindsets and ideas of methods, 

as is evident in example (16). 

 
(16) A more technical team member thinks more about the technical aspect, that it 

works, that user is able to move from page one to page two. People with more 
visual background think more about the human as a whole and consider why is 
the user there in the first place. (P10) 

 
Other interviewees who raised the theme of diversity were in agreement that it is a key 

factor in successful UX projects. This theme is further discussed in chapter 5.4.1. 

 

 

5.2.2.2 Enthusiasm with new methods and technology 

Most of the interviewees displayed at least some level of curiosity and interest towards 

heatmap technology. This enthusiasm was frequently apparent prior to the interviews, 

evidenced by pre-interview messages, where interviewees expressed their fascination, 

curiosity and excitement about the topic of UX related visual heatmaps. Often at the 

beginning of the interviews, the interviewees remarked that the topic was intriguing, 

and this was also a key reason why they wanted to participate in the interview. 

 

Enthusiasm with heatmaps was particularly evident among those interviewees who had 

previous experience with heatmaps from e.g. their studies in university, but who had not 

utilized the technology in recent years. Thus, they could perhaps recognize the opportu-

nities offered by the technology and were interested in learning about its recent ad-

vancements and new possibilities. This enthusiasm for possible experimentations with 

heatmap technology is evident in example ((17) It would be fascinating to see if 



50 

there are any areas where we could improve. What could I do differently to ensure that 

we haven't become entrenched in thinking that something is just fine as it is?17). 

 
(17) It would be fascinating to see if there are any areas where we could improve. 

What could I do differently to ensure that we haven't become entrenched in 
thinking that something is just fine as it is? (P9) 

 
The possible use of various biometric sensors and usability testing laboratories was per-

ceived as particularly exciting. This excitement may stem from the fact that such tech-

nology represents the future and presents exciting new opportunities for its users. This 

is particularly crucial in creative work, where staying abreast of emerging technologies 

and leveraging them to enhance the design process is essential. 

 

Several designers interested in heatmaps highlighted the technology's potential as an 

inspiring and motivating factor for not only UX designers themselves but other stake-

holders as well. Concerning stakeholder communication, the utilization of heatmaps will 

be elaborated upon in chapter 5.4.4. 

 

 

5.2.2.3 Curiosity towards surprising results 

Two of the interviewees, who held a more positive attitude, demonstrated a curious 

mindset towards physiological tools, biometric sensors, and their outcomes, the visual 

heatmaps. This attitude was strongly associated with the idea that the results might re-

veal unexpected insights that the designer alone or the entire design team had not been 

able to anticipate. 

 

For instance, tracking em