Tareque Mahmud Reflections of high- and low-context marketing communication styles in YouTube video ads A comparative study of FMCG companies in Finland and India Vaasa 2024 School of Marketing and Communication Master´s thesis in International Business Master´s Degree Programme in International Business 2 UNIVERSITY OF VAASA School of Marketing and Communication Author: Tareque Mahmud Title of the thesis: Reflections of high- and low-context marketing communication styles in Youtube video ads : A comparative study of FMCG compa- nies in Finland and India Degree: Master of Science in Economics and Business Administration Discipline: International Business Supervisor: Minnie Kontkanen Year: 2024 Pages: 98 ABSTRACT : Understanding intercultural communication is important because modern technology has made it easier for people to communicate across border in the blink of an eye. Failure to communicate effectively can lead to misunderstandings and misinterpretations, resulting in lost customer, lost business and lost opportunities. This study explores the cultural communication styles embedded in YouTube video ads in the Fast-Moving Consumer Goods (FMCG) sector, comparing Finland and India. By following Hofstede´s individualism vs. collectivism dimension and Hall’s high- and low-context cultural theory, the research investigates how these cultural frameworks influence online video advertising strategies in these countries. A content analysis was conducted on 60 YouTube advertisements, with 30 ads from each country representing a range of FMCG categories. The analysis focused on identifying and quantifying specific attributes associated with high- and low-context communication. The study tested four hypotheses, predicting the prevalence of low-context communication in Finnish ads and high- context communication in Indian ads, as well as comparing the relative frequency of these communication styles between the two countries. The findings support the hypotheses, revealing that Finnish ads predominantly feature low- context attributes, such as explicit product demonstrations and other direct communication styles, which align with Finland’s individualistic cultural orientation. In contrast, Indian ads were found to frequently incorporate high-context attributes, including drama, entertainment, and other indirect communication strategies, reflecting the country’s collectivistic and high-context cultural communication styles. Interestingly, the analysis also uncovered instances of crossover, where Finnish ads employed some high-context elements and Indian ads included low-context features, suggesting a degree of cultural blending in advertising strategies. However, the study has limitations, including its focus on a single advertising platform (YouTube) and the analysis of ads in only one language (Hindi) for the Indian sample, which may not fully capture the diversity of the country’s advertising landscape. Future research is recommended to explore advertising strategies across multiple digital platforms and a broader linguistic spectrum. KEYWORDS: (Hall´s context theory, Hofstede´s cultural dimension, high- and low-context communication style, individualism vs. collectivism, marketing communication, online video advertising, YouTube, FMCG, Finland, India). 3 Contents 1 Introduction 7 1.1 Background of the study 7 1.2 Purposes, research question and objectives 9 1.3 Delimitations of the study 10 1.4 Structure of the study 11 1.5 Definitions of the key concepts 12 2 Literature review 14 2.1 Hall´s theory of high- and low-context cultures 14 2.1.1 High- and low-context cultures 14 2.1.2 Examples of high- and low-context cultural communication 16 2.2 Hofstede´s model of cultural dimension 18 2.2.1 Six cultural dimensions of Hofstede 19 2.2.2 Individualism vs. collectivism in depth 21 2.3 Relationship between Hall's theory and Hofstede's model 22 2.4 Finland & India 24 2.4.1 About Finland 25 2.4.2 Finnish cultural values 25 2.4.3 Finnish communication style 28 2.4.4 Finnish communication style through the lens of Hall´s context theory 30 2.4.5 About India 32 2.4.6 India cultural values 32 2.4.7 Indian communication style 34 2.4.8 Indian communication style through the lens of Hall´s context theory 35 2.5 Culture and advertising 37 2.5.1 Cultural influence on advertising 37 2.5.2 High- and low-context attributes in advertising 39 2.5.3 Online video advertising 43 2.6 Theoretical framework 45 3 Methodology 49 4 3.1 Research approach and research method 49 3.2 Data collection and sample selection 50 3.3 Data analysis 54 3.3.1 Content analysis 54 3.3.2 Coding 56 3.3.3 Reliability and validity 61 4 Findings 64 4.1 Sample description 64 4.2 Hypothesis testing 67 4.2.1 Hypothesis 1 67 4.2.2 Hypothesis 2 68 4.2.3 Hypothesis 3 69 4.2.4 Hypothesis 4 71 4.3 Additional analysis 72 5 Conclusion 76 5.1 Discussion of the results 76 5.2 Theoretical contribution 78 5.3 Managerial Implications 79 5.4 Limitations and suggestions for future research 80 References 82 Appendices 92 Appendix 1. List of Finnish ads 93 Appendix 2. List of Indian ads 95 Appendix 3. Example of one Finnish coding sheet 97 Appendix 4. Example of one India coding sheet 98 5 Figures Figure 1. Country classification of high-and low-context cultures 15 Figure 2. Key characteristics of high- and low-context communication 18 Figure 3. Finnish communication pattern 28 Figure 4. Finnish listening habits 29 Figure 5. Communication map by Meyer 31 Figure 6. Indian communication pattern 34 Figure 7. Indian listening habits 35 Figure 8. Global advertising research: understanding cultural values of consumers 38 Figure 9. Theoretical framework 48 Figure 10. Sampling process 53 Figure 11. Number of ads in each category 65 Figure 12. H1 testing: paired samples statistics 67 Figure 13. H1 testing: paired samples test 68 Figure 14. H1 testing: paired samples effect size 68 Figure 15. H2 testing: paired samples statistics 68 Figure 16. H2 testing: paired samples test 69 Figure 17. H2 testing: paired samples effect size 69 Figure 18. H3 testing: group statistics 70 Figure 19. H3 testing: independent samples test 70 Figure 20. H3 testing: independent samples effect size 70 Figure 21. H4 testing: group statistics 71 Figure 22. H4 testing: independent samples test 71 Figure 23. H4 testing: independent samples effect size 72 6 Tables Table 1. Ten differences between individualist and collectivist societies 22 Table 2. FMCG product categories 51 Table 3. Coding criteria 56 Table 4. Comparison of high- and low-context attributes, ad duration and views in Finnish and YouTube ads 66 Table 5. Number of attributes in Finnish and Indian ads from maximum to minimum 73 Abbreviations FMCG Fast-Moving Consumer Goods 7 1 Introduction This chapter introduces the background and main research question of the study. It also outlines the delimitations of the research, as well as the structure of the study. Additionally, it provides clear definitions of the key concepts used throughout the study. 1.1 Background of the study Global mobility and modern technology have made it easier for people from different cultures to connect and interact across borders. According to Arasaratnam (2015), this has created a greater need and relevance for conducting research in intercultural com- munication worldwide. Additionally, the global population continues to grow, and fewer people spend their entire lives in just one city, region, or country. People's most signifi- cant values, beliefs, attitudes, and behaviours are all influenced by culture (Zou et al., 2009), making it important to understand these differences to effectively conduct busi- ness and everyday life tasks. If people gain some knowledge of cultural differences and become aware of them, many problems and misunderstandings in cross-cultural groups can be avoided (Tong & Yuqing, 2020). On the other hand, failure to adapt to new cul- tures or neglecting to learn other ways may lead to misunderstandings, misinterpreta- tion, confusion, and embarrassment, resulting in serious consequences such as lost confidence, lost customers, lost business, and lost opportunities. E. T. Hall (1976) identifies two types of cultures based on the amount of information conveyed in a message while communicating. In some cultures, information is explicit, direct, and mostly verbalized, which Hall refers to as low-context cultures. In contrast, other cultures rely on contextual understanding beyond just the language used, which is more indirect way of communicating, and these are classified as high-context cultures (Hall, 1976, p. 91). Furthermore, Hofstede's model of cultural dimensions is a well- known theory in intercultural research. One of the dimensions in Hofstede's model is individualism vs. collectivism (Hofstede, 2011). According to Gudykunst & Ting-Toomey 8 (1988, p. 45), individualistic cultures are associated with low-context cultures, while col- lectivistic cultures are linked with high-context cultures. Based on Hofstede's scores, Fin- land is classified as an individualistic culture (score 75) and India as a collectivistic culture (score 24) (Country comparison tool, 2024). This suggests that Finland is a low-context culture and India is a high-context culture. Leonard et al. (2009, p. 850) said, “Culture influences what people communicate, to whom they communicate, and how they com- municate." Advertising serves as a communication tool between the consumer and the advertiser. Online videos are now the fastest-growing form of advertising. They are crucial for boosting sales and creating opportunities on websites and mobile apps. For example, in China, the online advertising market is worth over 130 billion yuan (about 19 billion US dollars) and is rapidly growing, with online video ads playing a major role in this expansion. Advertisers create ads that surprise, engage, and entertain to make their products memorable and help consumers create a positive feeling about the brand. This approach encourages people to remember the products and feel a connection to the brand, leading to buying decisions and boosting sales. (Zhang et al., 2023) Understanding the reflections of communication styles in online video advertisements is crucial because, according to De Mooij (2004), different cultures have unique values, beliefs, and symbols that influence how messages are understood. The author mentioned that advertisements need to align with these cultural values to resonate with the target audience effectively. Also, communication styles, whether high- or low- context, greatly influence how messages are perceived and interpreted by the audience. In the context of Finland and India, where cultural communication styles differ significantly—Finland being more individualistic and low-context and India being more collectivistic and high-context—analyzing their online video ads may help in tailoring marketing communicating styles that resonate with the local audience, thus enhancing the effectiveness of advertising campaigns based on their culture. This understanding 9 can be particularly relevant and beneficial for marketing professionals and video production companies to create online video ads that communicate effectively with the local audience. Previous studies have explored the reflection of Hall’s theory on cultural communication styles in various forms of advertising. For example, researchers like Biswas et al. (1992), Callow & Schiffman (2004), Bai (2016), Saleem (2016), Hornikx & Le Pair (2017), and Friedmann & Vescovi (2019) have analyzed print ads to uncover aspects of high- and low- context communication in cross-cultural studies. Similarly, Miracle et al. (1992), Cho et al. (1999), Kivinen (2012), and Yang (2014) examined TV commercials to identify how different cultures' communication styles are reflected in the ads. In another instance, Chang (2000) applied Hall’s culture-context theory and Hofstede’s individualism- collectivism framework to compare the content and messaging strategies of political TV ads in Taiwan and the US. Other researchers have used website design and content to interpret these theories, helping to understand how different cultures communicate with consumers (Usunier & Roulin, 2010; Wurtz, 2005). However, there is a research gap in studying how Hall´s theory of communication styles is reflected in online video advertising, particularly in YouTube video ads in cross-cultural comparisons between Finland and India. 1.2 Purposes, research question and objectives The primary purpose of this study is to find how cultural communication styles are reflected in online video advertisements, particularly on YouTube ads, in the context of Finland and India. Given the significant cultural differences between these two countries—Finland being more individualistic and low-context, and India being more collectivistic and high-context—this study aims to understand how these cultural differences influence online video advertising strategies in their local market. By exploring the content of online video ads, this research can provide insights for marketing professionals and video production companies. Understanding the cultural 10 nuances that influence communication styles in Finland and India, companies can develop more effective marketing strategies that resonate with the local customers. Additionally, this study can address the research gap in understanding the application of Hall’s and Hofstede’s cultural theories to modern online video ads, contributing to the broader field of intercultural communication research. Based on the purpose and aim of this study, the research question is: Research question: What is the reflection of cultural values of individualism and collectivism in the use of high-context and low-context marketing communication styles in YouTube video ads in Finland and India? Research objectives must be established to describe and offer thorough guidance for the research paper. These will help to make efforts to address the research question precisely. For this study, thus, the following objectives are set: 1. To explore Hall’s context theory and Hofstede’s individualism vs. collectivism dimension, and examine their connection based on previous studies. 2. To compare the communication styles of Finland and India through the lens of Hall´s context theory. 3. To identify the cultural influence in advertising and the high- and low-context attributes used in advertising. 4. To investigate how Fast-Moving Consumer Goods (FMCG) companies in Finland and India reflect their cultural values and communication styles in their video advertising content. 1.3 Delimitations of the study This study is geographically focused on Finland and India and will not include other countries. The cultural context will be measured based on Hall´s theory of high- and low- context culture as well as Hofstede´s cultural dimension of individualism and collectivism. 11 No other theories or correlations will be used in this study. The research will specifically analyze the Fast-Moving Consumer Goods (FMCG) sector, excluding other industries. Only online video ads produced after January 2022 will be used, while other forms of advertising, for example, print ads, TV ads, and radio ads, are excluded. The research methodology will involve a quantitative content analysis, without the use of surveys or interviews. YouTube video ads will be selected based on their target audience, ensuring they are intended for local viewers rather than an international audience. This approach will help ensure that the videos are designed to resonate with local cultural contexts, reflecting the specific cultural nuances of each country. A total of 30 advertising videos will be selected for each country, sourced from YouTube. These delimitations ensure a focused and feasible research project relevant to the research questions and objectives. 1.4 Structure of the study This study is structured into five main chapters, each addressing different aspects of the research. The first is the introductory chapter, which provides a comprehensive overview of the research background, the relevance of the study, and the research gap. It sets the stage by explaining the purpose, research question, and objectives of the study. Finally, it defines the delimitations of the study. The second chapter is the literature review that explores relevant theories and previous studies related to the research topic. It delves into various academic perspectives and frameworks, providing a foundation for understanding the current research landscape and identifying gaps that this study aims to fill. The third chapter is the methodology chapter, which outlines the research design, including the data collection methods, sampling techniques, and coding process used in 12 the study. It explains the rationale behind the chosen methods and how they align with the research objectives. The fourth chapter is the findings chapter, which presents the data collected during the study, along with a detailed analysis of the findings. The analysis is structured around the research questions and hypotheses, providing evidence and interpretations based on the data. The fifth and final chapter discusses the results of the findings from the previous chapter. Also, this chapter talks about the theoretical contribution and managerial implications of the findings. Finally, it discusses the limitations of the study and potential areas for further research. 1.5 Definitions of the key concepts High- and low-context communication Individuals from high-context cultures prefer implicit and indirect communication, while individuals from low-context cultures prefer explicit and direct communication (Gudykunst & Ting-Toomey, 1988). Individualism vs. collectivism Individualistic cultures emphasize personal identity, achievement, and autonomy, while collectivistic cultures prioritize group harmony, loyalty, and relationships (De Mooij & Hofstede, 2011). FMCG Fast-Moving Consumer Goods are those products that are sold quickly and relatively low prices. FMCG products have very short shelf life, either due to high demand or they do not last long. Examples of FMCG products are fast food, soft drinks, medicines, cosmetics or other similar consumables. (Purbey, 2022) YouTube ads YouTube ad is an in-stream advertisement that is played in YouTube videos as pre-roll (before the video starts), mid-roll (in the middle of the video) or post-roll (at 13 the end of the video) (Li & Lo, 2015). YouTube ads are shown with or without skippable options in the most trending videos or popular channels (Praveen et al., 2023). Content analysis Content analysis is a research methodology that involves systematically analyzing and interpreting the content of various types of messages, such as texts, images, or any form of communication that carries meaning. It aims to extract insights, patterns, and themes from the content to understand the underlying messages or information being conveyed. (Gheyle & Jacobs, 2017) 14 2 Literature review This chapter introduces Hall's context theory and Hofstede's model of cultural dimensions. It also discusses the relationship between these two theories based on previous studies. The chapter then focusses on Finland and India, providing general information about the countries, their cultural values, and communication styles, viewed through the lens of Hall's theory. Additionally, it explores the relationship between culture and advertising as well as identifies the attributes of high- and low-context cultures in advertising. The chapter concludes with the presentation of a theoretical framework for this study. 2.1 Hall´s theory of high- and low-context cultures Hall's theory (1976), also known as context theory, is a theoretical framework developed by Edward T. Hall to explain how different cultures have different ways of communicating. According to Hall (1976), cultures can be classified on a scale from high context to low context (p. 79). The theory also emphasizes the importance of understanding the cultural context in order to effectively communicate with individuals from different cultures (Kittler et al., 2011). 2.1.1 High- and low-context cultures In high-context cultures, much of the information is already known by the individuals and is embedded in the context, while in low-context cultures, most of the information is explicitly stated in the message (Hall, 1976, p. 91). Hall´s (1976) theory suggests that individuals from high-context cultures prefer implicit and indirect communication, while individuals from low-context cultures prefer explicit and direct communication (Gudykunst & Ting-Toomey, 1988; Tong & Yuqing, 2020). In high-context culture, implicit messages are conveyed through, for example, body language, shared experiences, and 15 contextual cues (Wurtz, 2005). In these types of cultures, communication relies heavily on understanding the context and shared cultural knowledge (Broeder, 2021; Usunier & Roulin, 2010). Examples of high-context cultures include Japanese and Chinese cultures as it is shown in Figure 1. Figure 1. Country classification of high-and low-context cultures (Broeder, 2021, p. 15; Koeszegi et al., 2004, p. 85; Wurtz, 2005, p. 277) Low-context culture, on the other hand, conveys explicit messages through more direct, precise, and relies less on contextual cues (Chung, 2013; Usunier & Roulin, 2010). Exam- 16 ples of low-context cultures include those of Scandinavian and German-speaking coun- tries (Wurtz, 2005). These cultural communication styles have implications for how in- formation is transmitted and understood, with high-context cultures relying more on non-verbal cues and shared understanding, while low-context cultures prioritize explicit verbal communication (Broeder, 2021; Nam, 2015; Nishimura et al., 2008). 2.1.2 Examples of high- and low-context cultural communication According to Tong and Yuqing (2020), understanding high- and low-context cultural communication helps individuals navigate and interpret communication styles in different cultures, leading to more effective and successful intercultural interactions. The authors also stated that individuals from high-context cultures rely on shared understanding and assumptions, while individuals from low-context cultures may lack the same shared experiences. As a result, those from low-context cultures require clearer procedures and explicit instructions when performing tasks, whereas individuals from high-context cultures generally have a collective understanding of what needs to be done and how to do it, requiring less explanation (Nam, 2015; Tong & Yuqing, 2020; Wurtz, 2005). Nam (2015, p. 378) demonstrated an example of how two friends from different cultural contexts would have had to communicate to ask for help in moving house. The example is very helpful to understand the communication style. Low-context example Klaus: Hey, I´m finally moving to my new apartment. I need to start packing. Bob: Wonderful! When are you moving? Klaus: This Sunday. I have so many things to move. Could you come and help? Bob: Sure! My church service ends around noon, so I would be happy to help afterward. 17 Klaus: Thanks! High context example Eujin: Well, I am finally moving to my new apartment. You will be invited to the housewarming party! Suo: How wonderful! When are you moving? Eujin: This Sunday. I need to start packing. [I hope Suo can help me.] Suo Do you need help? I would be happy to help! [I know Eujin needs help, but she will not ask me unless I offer.] Eujin: Really? I hate to trouble you… You have church on Sunday… [I am so glad Suo is offering to help.] Suo: No worries. It ends at noon, so I can come afterward. Eujin: Oh… are you sure? If you insist… Thanks so much! Suo: My pleasure. From these examples, it is understandable that in low-context cultures, direct and straightforward communication is valued, while in high-context cultures, communication is more circular and relies on reading between the lines. Nam (2015) also illustrated the key characteristics of high- and low-context cultures as it is shown below in Figure 2 (p. 379). 18 Figure 2. Key characteristics of high- and low-context communication (Nam, 2015, p. 379) 2.2 Hofstede´s model of cultural dimension Hofstede's model of cultural dimensions was developed based on a study conducted with IBM employees from more than 50 countries between 1980-1983 (Gudykunst & Ting-Toomey, 1988). In the first edition of Hofstede's book "Cultures and Organisations: Software of the Mind," published in 1991, he introduced four cultural dimensions: Power Distance, Individualism vs. Collectivism, Masculinity vs. Femininity, and Uncertainty Avoidance (Hofstede & Hofstede, 1991). In the second edition of the book, published in 2004, Hofstede added a fifth dimension, Long vs. Short Term Orientation (Hofstede & Hofstede, 2004). Finally, in the third edition, published in 2010, they introduced a sixth dimension, Indulgence vs. Restraint (Hofstede & Hofstede, 2010). 19 2.2.1 Six cultural dimensions of Hofstede The six cultural dimensions of Hofstede are briefly explained below. 1. Power Distance: Power distance is the extent to which less powerful members of a society accept and expect unequal distribution of power (Hofstede & Hofstede, 2004). It influences social hierarchies and organizational structures, with high power distance cultures valuing hierarchy and respecting authority more than low power distance cultures (De Mooij & Hofstede, 2010). Based on data from 76 countries, Hofstede (2011) found that the Power Distance Index scores tend to be higher for East European, Latin, Asian, and African countries, while they tend to be lower for Germanic and English- speaking Western countries. 2. Individualism vs. Collectivism: This dimension measures the degree to which individuals prioritize personal interests over group interests (individualism) or vice versa (collectivism) (De Mooij & Hofstede, 2010). Individualistic cultures emphasize personal identity, achievement, and autonomy, while collectivistic cultures prioritize group harmony, loyalty, and relationships (De Mooij & Hofstede, 2011). Based on data from 76 countries, Hofstede (2011) found that developed and Western countries tend to have a prevailing culture of individualism, while less developed and Eastern countries tend to have a prevailing culture of collectivism. Japan, however, occupies a middle position on the spectrum of individualism and collectivism. 3. Masculinity vs. Femininity: Masculinity reflects societies that value assertiveness, material success, and competitiveness, while femininity emphasizes caring for others, quality of life, and modesty (De Mooij & Hofstede, 2010). These dimensions influence societal values, gender roles, and the emphasis on achievement versus relationships in different cultures (De Mooij & Hofstede, 2011). Based on 76 countries, Hofstede (2011) found Japan, German-speaking countries, and certain Latin countries like Italy and Mexico have high levels of masculinity. English-speaking Western countries have mod- erately high levels of masculinity. On the other hand, Nordic countries, the Netherlands, 20 and certain Latin and Asian countries like France, Spain, Portugal, Chile, Korea, and Thai- land have low- to moderately low- levels of masculinity. 4. Uncertainty Avoidance: Uncertainty Avoidance refers to a society's tolerance for am- biguity and risk, with high uncertainty avoidance cultures preferring structure, rules, and resisting change, while low- uncertainty avoidance cultures are more open to innovation and risk-taking (De Mooij & Hofstede, 2011). Based on data from 76 countries, Hofstede (2011) shared that East and Central European countries, Latin countries, Japan, and Ger- man-speaking countries tend to have higher scores, whereas English-speaking countries, Nordic countries, and Chinese culture countries tend to have lower scores on the Uncer- tainty Avoidance Index. 5. Long-Term vs. Short-Term Orientation: It examines whether a culture values long- term planning, perseverance, and thriftiness (long-term orientation) or immediate grat- ification, tradition, and stability (short-term orientation) (Hofstede & Hofstede, 2004). Cultures with a long-term orientation prioritize future rewards, sustainability, and adapt- ability, while short-term oriented cultures focus on immediate results, past traditions, and maintaining the status quo (De Mooij & Hofstede, 2011). According to Hofstede (2011), East Asian countries, followed by Eastern and Central European countries, exhibit a long-term orientation. South and North European countries, as well as South Asian countries, have a medium-term orientation. The United States, Australia, Latin American countries, African countries, and Muslim countries tend to have a short-term orientation. 6. Indulgence vs. Restraint: Hofstede (2011) explained indulgence as it refers to a society that permits individuals to freely satisfy their basic and natural human desires, particu- larly those related to enjoying life and having fun. He added that restraint, on the other hand, describes a society that exercises control over the fulfilment of needs and regu- lates it through strict social norms. Based on data from 93 countries, Hofstede (2011) found that indulgence is more commonly observed in South and North America, Western Europe, and certain regions of Sub-Saharan Africa. Restraint tends to be more prevalent 21 in Eastern Europe, Asia, and the Muslim world. Mediterranean Europe falls somewhere in the middle of this dimension. 2.2.2 Individualism vs. collectivism in depth Understanding the individualism vs. collectivism dimensions at a deeper level is im- portant for this thesis. This dimension is the bridge between the Hofstede´s model and Hall´s theory. The next chapter has a detailed discussion about the relationship between these two theories. Individualism and collectivism are crucial for understanding cross-cultural psychology. Scholars have been studying the topic for a long time. Gudykunst and Ting-Toomey (1988, p. 40) emphasize the importance of studying the Individualism vs. Collectivism cultural dimension by stating, “Individualism-collectivism is the major dimension of cultural var- iability isolated by theorists across disciplines.” Hofstede (2011) stated that in individualist cultures, the connections between individu- als are loose, and there is an expectation for each person to take care of themselves and their immediate family. On the other hand, in collectivist cultures, individuals are inte- grated into strong and cohesive in-groups, often extended families, from birth onward. These in-groups provide protection and support in exchange for unwavering loyalty and often oppose other in-groups. Table 1 shows ten differences between individualist and collectivist societies, as presented by Hofstede (2011, p. 11). From the table, it is visible that in individualistic societies, decisions made by individuals are highly valued, while in collectivist societies, decisions made by groups carry more significance (M. Gupta & Sukamto, 2020). 22 Table 1. Ten differences between individualist and collectivist societies (M. Gupta & Sukamto, 2020, p. 110) Individualistic society Collectivistic society Everyone is supposed to take care of him- self or herself and his or her immediate family only People are born into extended families or clans which protect them in exchange for loyalty “I”- consciousness “We”- consciousness Right of privacy Stress on belonging Speaking one´s mind is healthy Harmony should always be maintained Others classified as individuals Others classified as in-group or out-group Personal opinion expected: one person one vote Opinions and votes predetermined by in- group Transgression of norms leads to guilt feel- ings Transgression of norms leads to shame feelings Languages in which the word “I” is indis- pensable Language in which the word “I” is avoided Purpose of education is learning how to learn Purpose of education is learning how to do Task prevails over relationship Relationship prevails over task 2.3 Relationship between Hall's theory and Hofstede's model According to Broeder (2021), Hall's context theory is connected to Hofstede's model of cultural dimension. The individualism-collectivism dimension in Hofstede's model matches with Hall's low- and high-context communication styles, respectively. The author mentioned, in collectivistic (high-context) cultures, communication relies more on implicit information, visuals, and non-verbal cues, needing less explicit communication compared to individualistic (low-context) cultures. Another study by 23 Gudykunst et al. (1996) found that independent self-construal and individualistic values influence low-context communication, while interdependent self-construal and collectivistic values influence high-context communication. The authors also found other studies that support the correlation between high-context culture and collectivistic culture as well as low-context culture and individualistic culture. Some of those studies, for example: (1) People from individualistic cultures tend to act more based on their feelings (Frymier et al., 1990) and are more likely to talk compared to people from collectivistic cultures (Gaetz et al., 1990). (2) People from collectivistic cultures focus more on not hurting others' feelings and avoiding being a burden, unlike those from individualistic cultures (Kim, 1994). (3) People from individualistic cultures care more about being clear when they talk (Kim, 1994) and think clarity is essential for good communication (Kim & Wilson, 1994), unlike those from collectivistic cultures. (4) People from individualistic cultures think that being direct is the best way to achieve their goals, while people from collectivistic cultures find direct requests the least effective (Kim & Wilson, 1994). (5) People from collectivistic cultures tend to have a stronger sense of interdependence. In contrast, those from individualistic cultures have a weaker sense of interdependence. The study also found that people with a strong sense of interdependence are more likely to use high-context communication styles, while those with a strong sense of independence are not. (Singelis & Brown, 1995) In addition, in individualistic cultures, people communicate directly and clearly with explicit verbal messages, getting straight to the point. In contrast, collectivistic cultures value group harmony and social connections, leading to indirect communication. Here, identity is tied to the group, and maintaining harmony is crucial. During sales in individualistic cultures, parties prefer quick and direct negotiations. However, in collectivistic cultures, building relationships and trust is essential before discussing business. (De Mooij & Hofstede, 2011) 24 Furthermore, low-context cultures are often individualistic, focusing on personal goals and achievements rather than those of the group. People are expected to be self-reliant and take care of themselves. When pursuing their goals, they usually consider only themselves and their immediate family. Key personal values in these cultures include having personal time, freedom, and taking on challenges. (Wurtz, 2005, p. 279) Gudykunst & Ting-Toomey (1988, p. 44) wrote in their book “Culture and interpersonal communication”: We believe that the dimensions of low-high-context communication and individualism-collectivism are isomorphic. All cultures Hall (1976,1983) labels as low-context are individualistic, given Hofstede's scores, and all of the cultures Hall labels as high-context are collectivistic in Hofstede's (1980, 1983) schema. It, therefore, appears that low- and high-context communication are the predominant forms of communication in individualistic and collectivistic cultures, respectively. Finally, another reason why these two theories are related, as presented by Hall & Hall (1990) (Cited by Ryabina, 2008, p. 41) is that in individualistic, low-context cultures, people keep their private lives separate from other areas of life. As a result, they don't know much about each other, so they need to share detailed information when communicating. In collectivistic, high-context cultures, people have close relationships with family, friends, and colleagues. They know a lot about each other's lives, so they don't need to provide as much detailed information when communicating. 2.4 Finland & India Hofstede (2001) pointed out that understanding the national culture provides a context for interpreting behaviours, communication styles, and social norms. It helps in accurately analyzing and understanding the subtleties and nuances of communication within that country. In contrast, Arasaratnam (2015) suggested that researchers should be cautious when comparing countries at a national level because of the growing diversity within them. People's cultural identities are complex and shaped by their 25 experiences with multiple cultures. The author added that while comparing countries may have been useful in the past when populations were more homogeneous, it is important to question the relevance and applicability of such comparisons in today's diverse world. For this thesis, it is important to understand where Finland and India culturally stand based on previous studies. The following chapters briefly talk about Finland and India, their cultural values, communication styles, and finally, their communication style through the lens of Hall´s theory. 2.4.1 About Finland Finland is a Nordic country (Miles, 2005) situated in northern Europe. It shares borders with Sweden to the northwest, Norway to the north, and Russia to the east, while the Gulf of Bothnia lies to its west and the Gulf of Finland to its south (Lewis, 2005). By the end of 2023, Finland had a little more than 5.6 million people living in the country (Statistics Finland, 2024). According to the World Happiness Report 2024, Finland has once again become the happiest country in the world (Helliwell et al., 2024), making it the happiest country in the world for the seventh consecutive time (ThisisFINLAND staff, 2024). Some of the key factors analyzed by the World Happiness Report to determine the happiest country are GDP per capita, health and life expectancy, social security, free- dom of choice, generosity, and corruption levels (Svenja, 2024). In addition to being the happiest country in the world, Finland was the most transparent and open nation in 2022 (Most Transparent Countries, 2022), the second least corrupt country in 2023 (Corruption Perceptions Index, 2023), and the second most stable nation in 2024 (Fragile States Index, 2024). 2.4.2 Finnish cultural values Katja Pantjar (2018) wrote a book about The Finnish Way: Finding Courage, Wellness and Happiness Through the Power of Sisu. In her book, she mentioned, “Sisu, sauna, and 26 Sibelius, which I think is intended to sum up the essence of the country and its identity. “(p. 17) When it comes to defining "sisu" the meaning is a bit hard to pin down. When the author asked people what they think it means, she got various answers, but the general idea is that it’s about not giving up, especially when things get tough. Finns often mention sig- nificant achievements in war and sports as examples of sisu. (Pantzar, 2018). Sauna or the Finnish steam bath is an essential part of Finnish lifestyle and culture. It is estimated that Finland has 3.3 million saunas for 5.5 people living in Finland. It is almost inevitable to miss the sauna experience when visiting Finland, or at least get an invitation. (Pantzar, 2018) Jean Sibelius (1865–1957) is one of Finland's most famous composers. He composed "Finlandia," a piece that became an unofficial national anthem and was banned during Russian rule for its defiant nature. (Pantzar, 2018) Lewis (2005, pp. 58-63) wrote the book called “Finland, Cultural Lone Wolf” where he talked about Finnish 10 basic cultural values. One of them is, of course, Sisu. Here are the 10 cultural values of Finnish people by Lewis (2005, pp. 58–63): 1. Sense of separateness: Finns feel a strong sense of separateness from other nation- alities due to their unique language, culture, and geography, which foster a distinct iden- tity. This separateness is further emphasized by their deep national self-consciousness and interest in cultural differences, despite being less chauvinistic compared to other nationalities like the Japanese, Chinese, and French. 2. Sisu: The Finnish value of "sisu" is hard to translate but is closest to "guts" in English, implying courage, toughness, and determination. It has helped Finns endure hardships 27 like the Winter War of 1939, subsequent wars, and economic challenges, playing a key role in maintaining their independence and achieving progress. 3. Honesty: Finns believe they are extremely honest, with honesty being strict and law- abiding. Finnish honesty is seen as uncompromising, and even a prime minister was dis- missed for a minor lie, showing how seriously they take truthfulness. 4. Hatred of debt: Finns strongly dislike being in debt and will go out of their way to repay even minor amounts. Finnish companies and the government are known for pay- ing bills promptly and maintaining fiscal responsibility, likely stemming from a history of hardship and a desire for independence. 5. Luotettavuus: Finns value reliability and expect you to follow through on your prom- ises. They associate steady work ethic and capability with trustworthiness, so it's im- portant not to overpromise and to avoid exaggerated body language, which they may find unreliable. 6. Shyness and modesty: Finns are generally shy and value modesty, preferring privacy and solitude, and they avoid gossip and flattery. They don't like imposing their views on others and are not easily persuaded by strong pressure or sales tactics. 7. Taciturnity: New arrivals often notice that Finnish men are very quiet, which can be off-putting to more talkative people from other cultures. Finns prefer brief and to-the- point communication, and they might distrust someone who talks too much, thinking they might be hiding something. 8. Directness: Finns prefer to speak briefly but are very direct and honest when they do. This straightforwardness can be surprising or off-putting to people from cultures that value more subtle or gentle communication e.g., Japan. On the other hand, Americans generally appreciate it. 28 9. Realism: Finns are very realistic and practical, often avoiding excessive enthusiasm or optimism due to their history and climate. They tend to be cautious about making prom- ises and prefer to stay accurate and grounded in their expectations. 10. Common sense: When things go wrong Finns rely on their common sense. This prac- tical approach is valued in Nordic cooperation and appreciated in EU meetings for bal- ancing more extravagant styles of communication. 2.4.3 Finnish communication style Finland’s official languages are Finnish and Swedish (Languages of Finland, n.d.). In Finland, about 87% of people speak Finnish as their first language, while 5% speak Swedish as their first language (Statistics Finland, 2020). Besides these, Finland has other languages protected by law, such as the Saami languages spoken by the indigenous people, as well as Finnish Romani, Finnish sign language, Finland-Swedish sign language, and Karelian, all of which have long histories in the country. (Languages of Finland, n.d.) Figure 3. Finnish communication pattern (Lewis, 2008, p. 15) Author Lewis (2008) mentioned in his book “Cross Cultural Communication- A Visual Approach” that when Finnish people communicate in meetings, they prefer to speak only when necessary. Similar to the Japanese, they are cautious with words and rely more on summaries for clarity, as shown in Figure 3. For example, if their proposal is unclear, they will repeat it briefly, expecting this to help. While an Italian might expect 29 more details, Finnish people stick to the essentials, showing an Asian-like communication style rather than a European one. They usually let others speak first and take time to respond, valuing silence as a sign of respect. Finnish people consider statements as promises, so they speak only when certain. Their communication is straightforward and direct, avoiding exaggerated or emotional language, which they find inappropriate or even funny. (p.14) Lewis (2008, p. 71) also added that Finnish people are excellent listeners who avoid interrupting and highly respect others' remarks, as shown in Figure 4. They carefully consider others' opinions and proposals, showing high concentration levels. During business presentations, they often give little or no feedback. Among themselves, they feel less pressure to contribute actively to discussions. Active listening, like showing interest or involvement, is rare, which can make other nationalities uncomfortable due to the lack of interruptions or comments from Finnish people. Figure 4. Finnish listening habits (Lewis, 2008, p.72) 30 2.4.4 Finnish communication style through the lens of Hall´s context theory Whether Finland is high-context or low-context culture, there are many debates around the topic. While some researchers said Finland is a low-context culture (Kittler et al., 2011; Koeszegi et al., 2004; Koivisto, 1998; Lewis, 2006; Meyer, 2014), others said that Finland is a high-context culture (Mathur, 2019; Ryabina, 2008). Some said Finland is leaning towards more low-context cultures from high context-cultures (Nishimura et al., 2008). Some researchers also said that Finland is mixed with high- and low-context cultures, for example, Granlund and Lukka said (1998, p. 190): Finnishness implies conflicting cultural properties to such an extent that locating Finland on the continuum is inevitably ambiguous. Finnishness includes both (strong) low-context features (like straightforwardness) and high-context features (like positive attitude towards silence). Low-context culture involves direct and explicit communication, where messages are clear and to the point (see Figure 2). For example, “Yes” means yes and “No” means no, with no room for ambiguity or reading between the lines. Finnish communication is direct, and Finns value clarity (also shown in Figure 3). However, Granlund & Lukka (1998, p. 190) described Finland as a high-context culture due to its “positive attitude towards silence.” However, the “silence” of Finnish people does not necessarily share the same characteristics as the “silence” in high-context cultures. For example, Quan (2015) said China is a high-context culture, which shows a positive attitude towards silence. Pause and silence in China show many meanings, including agreement, disagreement, protest, respect, praise, etc. However, Finnish silence may not mean the same as it is in China. Rather, silence is used in Finland as a part of active listening (Nishimura et al., 2008). Furthermore, from Chapter 2.3, it is known that there is a correlation between individualistic cultures and low-context cultures, as well as collectivistic cultures and high-context cultures. That means individualistic countries have similar communication characteristics to low-context cultures, and collectivistic countries have similar characteristics to high-context cultures. Other studies that support this relation, for example De Mooij & Hofstede (2010), M. Gupta & Sukamto (2020), Kapoor et al., (2003), 31 Koivisto (1998), Wurtz (2005). In Hofstede´s cultural dimensions index, Finland scores 75 for individualism, which makes Finland an individualistic as well as low-context culture (Country comparison tool, 2024). Furthermore, in Figure 5, Meyer (2014, p. 39) showed a theory of how history, language, and cultural context are interrelated. The author indicated Finland as the low-context culture as it is shown in Figure 5. Figure 5. Communication map by Meyer (2014, p.39) On the other hand, Nishimura et al. (2008, p.6) said in their study: As far as communication style is concerned, Finland seems to reveal a Janus face. There are sure signs and scientific evidence of Finland having been a high context culture in many respects, but it seems that that trend is gradually chang- ing and that Finland is becoming, at least regarding the younger generation’s ways of communicating, a lower or much less high context culture than it used to be. Therefore, it is difficult to classify Finland within a particular cultural context because different researchers have had varying perspectives on describing the nature of the Finn- ish communication style through the lens of Hall’s theory of high- and low-context cul- tures. 32 2.4.5 About India According to the National Portal of India (2024), India is the 7th largest nation in the world, covering an area of 3.3 million square kilometres, located in the South Asian subcontinent. The country is bordered by the Bay of Bengal to the east, the Indian Ocean to the south, and the Arabian Sea to the west (National Portal of India, 2024). It shares borders with Afghanistan and Pakistan to the northwest, Nepal and Bhutan to the north, and Myanmar and Bangladesh to the east (National Portal of India, 2024). As of July 2024, India has surpassed China as the most populous country, with a population of 1.442 billion people, representing 18.01% of the world's total population (C. Gupta, 2024). According to Forbes India (2024), India ranks as the 5th largest nation in terms of GDP in 2024. Due to its educated and skilled English-speaking workforce, India has become the top choice for IT-related services, business outsourcing, and software development in the world (Overview of India, 2022). As a result, CEOs of Indian origin currently lead several global tech companies, such as Sundar Pichai (CEO of Google), Satya Nadella (CEO of Microsoft), Neal Mohan (CEO of YouTube), Shantanu Narayen (CEO of Adobe Systems), and Arvind Krishna (CEO of IBM) (Somani, 2024). This success in leading top companies highlights India's focus on education, entrepreneurial spirit, and economic development (Fahid, 2023). Despite its fast-growing and diverse economy with a skilled workforce, India is still considered one of the poorest nations in terms of income and GDP per capita (Overview of India, 2022). 2.4.6 India cultural values Author Lewis (2006) stated that Indian cultures are special and unique from East Asia, such as China, Japan or Korea. He also added that the British Raj left a lasting social and cultural impact on many Indians. Similarities with the British include the love for cricket, drinking tea, army traditions, having elite universities like Oxford and Cambridge, protecting wealth, noble titles, admiration for English literature, a democratic constitution, parliamentary rule, early industrialization, a class system, the English 33 language for culture and administration, a large civil service, a legal system, and respect for property (p. 435). Researcher Banerjee (2008, pp. 373–375) identified some core cultural values of Indian societies, which are: 1. Individual and family: Indian culture values the group over the individual, with strong ties to family and co-workers. Family plays a key role, with people finding security and prestige in their family relationships rather than individual success. Relationships are very important, and there is a balance between being independent and interdependent. 2. Society through conformity: Indian society values harmony and group performance over intense competition, with a strong emphasis on consensus. While people do seek individual achievements, they are willing to share their success, respecting a social hierarchy that values gradual change and maintains a balance between old and new ideas. 3. Success and growth: Success in Indian society is more fulfilling when accepted by the group rather than just individual achievement, emphasizing the importance of group welfare and commitment to serving others for success. It is more important in Indian society “Where from I?” than “What am I?” 4. Age and youthfulness: Indian culture values the wisdom and experience of the older generation that contribute to their happy and longer lives. This wisdom is transferred from the older generation to the younger one through storytelling. 5. Happiness and adaptability: Indian society involves sacrificing personal comfort and ambition for the happiness of the family. They are very calculative risk-takers. Materialistic gain is not considered as the prime source of happiness. 34 6. Religion and spirituality: Indians deeply value their trust in religion and spirituality. They believe that happiness depends on the supreme power. Also, people cannot alter an event, and everything is pre-determined by the supreme power (God and Goddess). 2.4.7 Indian communication style India is a multilingual country where most people speak at least two languages (M. Gupta & Sukamto, 2020). The Indian Constitution recognizes 22 official languages in India (National Portal of India, 2024). However, according to the Census of India (2001), there are 122 major languages and 1,599 other languages spoken in the country. The exact number might vary depending on the source and how languages and dialects are defined. Hindi is the official language (National Portal of India, 2024). It is the most widely spoken and understood language in India. Bengali holds the second position. English is the second language for around 100 million people and is widely used in politics and government. (M. Gupta & Sukamto, 2020) In this chapter, the communication patterns and listening habits of Indians, as discussed by Lewis (2008), are examined to understand how they convey their messages to others and how they process messages from others as part of their communication style. Figures and tables can be referred to in the text, for example as follows: Figure 6. Indian communication pattern (Lewis, 2008, p. 35) Lewis (2008) showed how Indians communicate in meetings with a visual diagram (Fig- ure 6). According to the author, communication in India is always very polite, with long 35 and friendly small talk before any business discussions start. When they finally talk about business, Indians prefer to hear the other side's opinion first. They hold back their talk- ative nature while listening. Initially, they seem agreeable, but they are skilled at adjust- ing and reshaping ideas to reach a mutually acceptable agreement in the end. Figure 7. Indian listening habits (Lewis, 2008, p. 93) For listening habits (Figure 7), Lewis (2008) stated that to capture the attention of an Indian audience, it's important to speak eloquently, with humility and respect. They ap- preciate expressive language and a rich vocabulary. They are willing to listen for a long time to build a relationship and aim to become friends with the speaker through their feedback. They are not difficult to engage, but their wisdom should not be underesti- mated. 2.4.8 Indian communication style through the lens of Hall´s context theory Most Indian communication styles follow the norms of high-context cultures, as defined by Hall´s theory of high- and low-context (M. Gupta & Sukamto, 2020; Kapoor et al., 2003; 36 Kittler et al., 2011; Koeszegi et al., 2004; Meyer, 2014; Nishimura et al., 2008; Zaidman, 2001). Zaidman (2001) studied business communication between low-context culture Israil and high context culture India. From his study, he showed how India as high context culture share very little information in the explicit part of the message by saying: Israelis, as LC communicators, expect that the mass of the information should be vested in the explicit code. They were at a loss when encountering the Indians’ HC communication, wherein very little information was in the coded, explicit, trans- mitted part of the message, and they criticized their Indian partners for not providing enough information. The Indians, on the other hand, expected that Is- raelis would listen to their explanations and relate to their problems, but they often did not. (p. 425) Additionally, In Indian communities, people speak politely to those older than them- selves. For example, Hindi speakers never call their older siblings by their first names; instead, they use terms like "bhaiya" for elder brother and "didi" for elder sister (M. Gupta & Sukamto, 2020). Author Meyer (2014) also indicated India as the high context culture in her Communica- tion Map as it is shown in Figure 5. She also added: …in many Asian cultures, including India, China, Japan, and Indonesia, messages are often conveyed implicitly, requiring the listener to read between the lines. Good communication is subtle, layered, and may depend on copious subtext, with responsibility for transmission of the message shared between the one sending the message and the one receiving it. (p. 32) In Japan as in India, China, and many other countries, people learn a very different style of communication as children—one that depends on unconscious assump- tions about common reference points and shared knowledge.” (p. 35) Furthermore, India scores 24 on Hofstede’s individualism index, making it a collectivist society and a high-context culture based on the correlation between Hall’s theory and Hofstede’s model (Country comparison tool, 2024). 37 Some studies also found that India is moving towards low-context cultures. For example, Kapoor et al. (2003) found from their study about American students in the US and In- dian students in India to see how their communication styles differed based on individ- ualistic and collectivist values. The Indian students showed more indirect communica- tion and a more positive view of conversational silence than the American students as expected. However, Indian students also rated themselves higher in individualism, with only a slight difference of 2 points above the average values. This might indicate that India is gradually moving towards a low-context culture. Here is how the authors de- scribed the result: In answer to the latter hypotheses, the present study found that the Indian partici- pants rated themselves as more collectivistic than the Americans, as expected (Hy- pothesis 3). Interestingly, they also rated themselves higher on individualism. The means, and not merely the significance of effect should be noted in this case: The means on collectivism was considerably higher (114.20 over 100.08 for the entire measure, on a scale from 19 to 133 possible points). The difference on individualism was much smaller, differing by only 2 points (84.16 over 82.23, in a range from 15 to 107 possible points). (pp. 694-695) 2.5 Culture and advertising Advertising is showing useful information about a product or service through advertising language, pictures or videos to the target audience (Bai, 2016). For advertisers, it is im- portant to understand the culture of the target audience to create clear and effective advertisements for them. In this chapter, cultural influence in advertising and what are the high- and low-context attributes used in advertising will be discussed. 2.5.1 Cultural influence on advertising Advertisement carries cultural values and advertisers use these values to connect prod- ucts with what consumers care about (Pollay 1983; as cited in Saleem, 2016, p. 24). In other words, these values are crucial for selling products, and advertisers often highlight 38 and glorify certain values to help selling the items. Therefore, knowing these values and using them in the advertisement is key to convincing people to buy (Saleem, 2016). Wei & Jiang (2005) found from their study that high-tech product advertisements work best when tailored to local cultures. They shared that even with a global product like a Nokia phone and a universal theme of "connecting people," the advertisement content still needs to be adapted to fit the culture of each country. Bai (2016) also supports the findings by stating that different cultures have distinct patterns, so the same advertise- ment will be interpreted differently across cultures. To attract customers from various cultures, advertisements need to understand the target culture and how it connects to people's lives. Also, Mortimer & Grierson (2010) studied service advertising in the UK and France. They found that cultural differences affect how people perceive service advertisements even more than product advertisements, noting that even these two similar European coun- tries showed distinct differences in their reactions to service advertisements. Figure 8. Global advertising research: understanding cultural values of consumers (De Mooij & Hofstede, 2010, p. 86) 39 De Mooij & Hofstede (2010) created Figure 8 to show how the cultural values of con- sumers translate into global advertising. The authors see cultural values as an integrated part of the consumer's identity, not just their environment. To create an effective adver- tisement, the consumer should be at the centre focus. Cultural values shape the self and personality of the consumer. The authors separated the mental process and social pro- cess in the figure. Mental processes are mainly how people think, learn, perceive, cate- gorise and process information. On the other hand, social processes, which involve how people interact with others, including their motivations and emotions. Both types of pro- cesses influence the interpersonal and mass communication that create advertising style and appeal. The authors suggested that all these factors must be considered when stud- ying advertising across cultures, and this model helps to analyse how these elements affect global advertising strategies. 2.5.2 High- and low-context attributes in advertising Hall (1976) differentiates cultures by how much context is needed in their communica- tion. As discussed before, In high-context cultures, most information is understood through context or is internalized, with little being stated outright. In low-context cul- tures, information is clearly and explicitly communicated. High-context communication is quick and efficient but requires proper context to be understood, making it confusing to outsiders. low-context cultures rely on clear, direct verbal messages and value explicit communication. In advertising, low-context cultures use clear arguments and rhetoric, while high-context cultures use symbolism and indirect messages. Hofstede noted that collectivist cultures are often high context, as group members share information more easily without needing explicit communication, unlike in individualistic cultures. (De Mooij, 2021, p. 114) As an example of high- and low-context characteristics in advertising, Bai (2016, p.24) studied two advertising narratives of a toothpaste advertisement as follows: 40 The first advertisement: Now there is something more dentists can recommend for your gums that’s proven to help get them healthier. Crest Plus Gum is the only cavity-fighting toothpaste that’s so effective, and it’s clinically proven to help pre- serve gum disease-gingivitis. Just what the dentists ordered. The second advertisement: Behind that healthy smile, there’s a Crest kid. Bai (2016) analysed that the first advertisement provides clear, detailed information about the product. It explains that Crest Plus Gum helps gums stay healthy, reverses gum disease, and is the only toothpaste that fights cavities effectively. It also mentions that dentists recommend it. This straightforward approach works well in low-context cultures, where direct messages are preferred. However, in high-context cultures like China, where people already assume the product is good, the direct endorsement by dentists might feel uncomfortable and less appealing. The second advertisement is less clear than the first, only mentioning a "healthy smile" and a "Crest kid" without giving much detail. This indirect message fits high-context cultures, where understanding relies on context, beliefs, and values. For example, Chinese viewers, from a high-context culture, will inter- pret this advertisement to mean that starting good habits from an early age as a kid leads to a good habit and healthy smiles, understanding the product's benefits without need- ing explicit details. However, people from low-context cultures might find the advertise- ment confusing and not be persuaded to buy the product. In advertisements where "I" is used, it reflects low-context cultures, focusing on individ- ualism and personal achievements. This approach is effective in cultures that value self- reliance and personal goals, as it highlights individual accomplishments and personal choices. In contrast, advertisements that use "we" reflect high-context cultures, empha- sizing collective values and group harmony. These advertisements are more effective in cultures where communal benefits and group acceptance are important, as they align with the audience’s focus on shared values and collective well-being. (Bai, 2016) 41 Furthermore, De Mooij (2021, pp. 401-427)) wrote in her book about how to classify different attributes of print and television advertisements that show attributes of high- and low-context cultures. Some of those attributes are: 1. Product messages: It focus on detailed information and factual explanations about a product, which are most common in low-context cultures. These cultures prefer clear, logical details and straightforward presentations of product attributes. In high-context cultures, where communication is more subtle and relational, such direct product mes- saging might be less effective or seen as too blunt. (p. 405) 2. Corporate presentations: It varies by context, such as in low-context cultures, they often include detailed facts and direct messaging about the company and its products, reflecting a straightforward and factual approach. In high-context cultures, corporate presentations tend to be more indirect and may incorporate cultural values, focusing on subtler messages and storytelling rather than explicit details. For example, American cor- porate advertisements are typically direct, while Asian corporate advertisements may use more indirect and culturally rich presentations. (p. 406) 3. Metaphors: Metaphors in advertising aslo vary based on cultural context. In high-con- text cultures, visual metaphors are commonly used to convey deeper, more subtle mean- ings, reflecting a preference for indirect communication. In contrast, low-context cul- tures favor verbal metaphors that offer clear and explicit comparisons, aligning with their focus on straightforward and direct messages. This difference highlights how high-con- text cultures appreciate nuanced and symbolic communication, while low-context cul- tures prioritize clarity and directness. (p. 409) 4. Celebrity transfer: It is where a celebrity's image is associated with a product without direct endorsement, aligns with high-context cultures because it relies on indirect and symbolic connections. In these cultures, such associations can build a subtle link be- tween the product and the celebrity's image. Conversely, low-context cultures prefer 42 clear endorsements with detailed information, so they may favour more direct forms of celebrity endorsement rather than mere association. (p. 410) 5. Lessons: Lessons are a straightforward way of communicating, often presenting facts and arguments to persuade the audience, and are common in low-context cultures. This direct approach, using clear explanations and visuals, suits individualistic cultures that value explicit information. High-context cultures, on the other hand, might prefer more indirect methods of communication that build relationships rather than delivering a di- rect lecture. (p. 411) 6. Metonymy: Metonymy which uses indirect visual connections like a flower symbolis- ing perfume, is more effective in high-context cultures because it aligns with their pref- erence for subtle and symbolic communication. In contrast, low-context cultures, which favour direct and clear explanations, might find such indirect associations less impactful or harder to understand. (p. 409) 7. Endorsements and testimonials: It involves someone sharing their personal experi- ence or opinion about a product. This approach is often used in low-context cultures, like in the U.S., where clear and direct communication is valued, and real user experi- ences are seen as trustworthy. In contrast, high-context cultures may prefer more indi- rect methods, focusing less on personal endorsements and more on relationships and cultural values. For example, In low-context cultures, like the U.S., testimonials often fea- ture identifiable ordinary people or celebrities with explicit details about their endorse- ment, providing clear and direct information. Conversely, in high-context cultures, such as Japan, testimonials are more indirect and may involve familiar figures offering implicit recommendations without overtly highlighting their credentials or the product's merits. (pp. 415-416) 43 Similarly, expert testimonial in advertising is a low-context attribute because it provides clear and direct information about the product or service. It often includes specific en- dorsements from experts or users, offering detailed and straightforward evidence of the product's benefits and reliability. This aligns with the preference for explicit communica- tion in low-context cultures, where detailed and unambiguous messages are valued. (p. 415) 8. Drama: Drama involves narratives and interactions between people. It is more com- mon in high-context cultures because it uses indirect storytelling to convey product mes- sages. Viewers observe characters and their experiences without direct addresses, which aligns with the subtle and contextual communication style of high-context cultures. In contrast, low-context cultures typically favor more direct and explicit methods of com- munication, such as lessons or product demonstrations. (p. 421) 9. Entertainment: In high-context cultures, advertising often uses entertainment like hu- mor and drama to build trust and relationships indirectly. People in these cultures enjoy ads that are subtle and engaging rather than directly selling a product. In low-context cultures, where people prefer clear and direct information, entertainment in ads might seem like a distraction from the main message and less useful. So, while entertainment can help create a connection in high-context cultures, it may not be as effective or nec- essary in low-context cultures. (p. 423) 10. Text and visual: Low-context cultures use more textual elements in the ads and high- context cultures use more visuals in the ads. (p. 372) 2.5.3 Online video advertising Online video advertising is a rapidly growing segment of digital marketing that leverages video content to engage consumers, deliver promotional messages, and drive brand 44 awareness and sales (Zhang et al., 2023). This form of advertising has become increas- ingly important as video consumption on platforms like YouTube has risen suddenly, with video being one of the most engaging types of content on the internet (K.-C. Yang et al., 2017). Online video advertising encompasses various formats, including pre-roll, mid- roll, and post-roll ads that play before, during, or after video content (Li & Lo, 2015). There are also in-stream ads embedded within the video stream, overlay ads that appear at the bottom of the video, and interactive ads that allow viewers to engage directly with the content (Mei & Hua, 2010). The choice of format often depends on the advertising goals, the platform, and the target audience (Frade et al., 2023). Moon (2014) stated that the effectiveness of online video advertising is influenced by several factors. For instance, video quality and the relevance of the ad content play cru- cial roles in capturing and maintaining viewer attention. The author also mentioned that higher video quality can enhance the sense of presence and immersion, making the ad more effective. Additionally, Mei & Hua (2010) said that the timing and placement of ads are critical. According to the authors, ads placed at less intrusive points in the video or those that are contextually relevant to the surrounding content tend to be more effective and less likely to be skipped by viewers. Consumer perception of online video ads varies significantly based on the ad's charac- teristics, such as length, humor, and informativeness. Ads perceived as intrusive or irrel- evant can negatively affect the viewer's attitude towards the brand and the platform hosting the ad. Conversely, ads that are humorous, informative, or creatively executed tend to be perceived more positively and can improve brand perception and purchase intentions.(Goodrich et al., 2015) Furthermore, the impact of online video advertising can be measured through a variety of metrics, including viewer engagement (e.g., click-through rates), conversion rates, and brand lift (Geyik et al., 2016). According to Zhang et al. (2023), the effectiveness of these 45 ads is often evaluated through both primary metrics (like, views and clicks) and targeted metrics that assess specific campaign goals, such as brand awareness or lead generation. YouTube stands as the leading platform, boasting over 2.6 billion monthly users and gen- erating $8.6 billion in advertising revenue in 2021 (Zhang et al., 2023). It is the second most visited website, founded in 2005 by three PayPal employees and later acquired by Google within less than two years from the founding date (Arthurs et al., 2018). YouTube ads are shown with or without skippable options in the most trending videos or popular channels (Praveen et al., 2023). YouTube displays ads as in-stream advertisements, and these ads appear when someone is about to watch a video and can be shown in different formats: pre-roll ads, which play before the intended video starts; mid-roll ads, which play in the middle of the video; and post-roll ads, which appear at the end of the video (Li & Lo, 2015). Anyone can open an account in YouTube and share video ads by targeting specific audiences (Praveen et al., 2023). Due to its popularity and practicality, advertis- ers are now shifting the budget from TV- commercials to YouTube advertisements at an increasing rate (Shields, 2016; cited in Djafarova & Kramer, 2019, p. 13). 2.6 Theoretical framework Hall´s (1976) theory about high- and low-context culture is one of the guiding theories to conduct this research. This theory has been widely acknowledged and applied in in- tercultural research, making Hall one of the most influential authors in the field of inter- cultural communication (Afrouzi, 2021; Kittler et al., 2011; Nam, 2015; Rogers et al., 2002). In the context of intercultural research, Hall´s (1976) theory complements other cultural dimensions and researchers have utilized the theory to explore how cultural dif- ferences impact various aspects of communication, including visual communication on websites (Wurtz, 2005), negotiation behaviour (Koeszegi et al., 2004), foreign language education and transcultural communication (Nishimura et al., 2008) and so on. One of the reasons why Hall's (1976) theory gained such acceptance in intercultural research is his emphasis on the nonverbal context in communication, which is crucial for effective 46 interaction between different nationalities. Another reason emphasised by Kittler et al. (2011) is how Hall (1976) demonstrated that the meaning of communication varies across cultures based on the balance of context and information. Based on the large number of studies that have been conducted on the basis of Hall's theory, it can be said that Hall´s theory provides a theoretical framework for conducting cross-cultural re- search that offers a lens through which researchers can analyze and compare communi- cation patterns as well as cultural differences across different cultures. However, Kittler et al. (2011) also found that Hall's theory has faced critiques of bipolarization, overgen- eralization, and a lack of empirical foundation from various studies. Another theory used in this thesis is Hofstede’s model of cultural dimensions. This model is one of the most renowned and accepted models, utilised by thousands of empirical studies to conduct intercultural research (Taras et al., 2010). Cardon (2008) found that Hofstede has been cited (6100 times) almost twice as much as Hall (3300 times) for their major three works, according to the Web of Science Social Sciences Cited References Index 2007. In this thesis, Hofstede’s dimensions, specifically individualism and collectiv- ism, have been used as a supportive tool for Hall's theory. According to De Mooij & Hof- stede(2011), individualistic cultures are also low-context cultures with explicit verbal communication. Similarly, collectivist cultures are high-context cultures with implicit communication styles. This idea is supported by other studies, such as those by Gudykunst et al. (1996), Gudykunst & Ting-Toomey (1988) and Wurtz (2005). Hofstede’s model provides up-to-date data with numerical values to measure various cultural di- mensions for almost all countries in the world, available on their website, www.hof- stede-insights.com. According to Hofstede's scores, Finland is identified as an individu- alistic culture (score 75), and India is a collectivistic culture (score 24) (Country comparison tool, 2024). Based on the correlation between individualistic cultures and low-context communication, as well as collectivistic cultures and high-context commu- nication, Finland should be considered a low-context culture, and India a high-context culture. However, different researchers have identified both cultures differently from the perspective of Hall’s context theory ( see chapters 2.4.4 & 2.4.8). 47 Based on the research question of this thesis—What is the reflection of cultural values of individualism and collectivism in the use of high-context and low-context marketing communication styles in YouTube video ads in Finland and India? — the following hy- potheses can be tested to conduct this research: H1: Finnish online video ads will contain low-context attributes more frequently than high-context attributes. H2: Indian online video ads will contain high-context attributes more frequently than low-context attributes. H3: Finnish online video ads will contain more low-context attributes than Indian online video ads. H4: Indian online video ads will contain more high-context attributes than Finnish online video ads. The relationship between cultures and advertising is shown in the literature review. Online video ads are important in this thesis as a medium to test the hypothesis and ultimately arrive at a conclusion. Research and studies related to high- and low-context attributes in advertising have been examined to understand the characteristics of adver- tisements that reflect high- and low-context messages. Figure 9 below has been created to visualize the theoretical framework. It illustrates the relationship between individualism and low-context messages, as well as the relation- ship between collectivism and high-context messages. Additionally, it shows that indi- vidualism is associated with Finland, while collectivism is associated with India. Finally, by analyzing the high- and low-context attributes in the ads, the hypotheses can be tested to conduct the research. 48 Figure 9. Theoretical framework 49 3 Methodology First of all, this chapter introduces the research approach and research method used in this study. Secondly, it discusses the data collection process and sample selection tech- nique. Thirdly, it explains the data analysis process. Finally, it addresses the reliability and validity of the data. 3.1 Research approach and research method Understanding the research approach is crucial, as it directly influences how the study will be designed and carried out. According to Saunders et al. (2007, pp. 117–121) choos- ing the right approach determines the framework for collecting and analyzing data, en- suring that the research aligns with the research objectives. The authors stated that there are two primary research approaches: deductive and inductive. In the deductive approach, researchers begin with a theory or hypothesis and design a study to test it. This method is often used in quantitative research, where the goal is to confirm or refute existing theories. On the other hand, the inductive approach involves collecting data first and developing a theory based on the findings. This approach is more exploratory and is frequently employed in qualitative research. So, it can be said that choosing between these approaches depends on whether the research is focused on theory testing (deduc- tive) or theory development (inductive). This research follows a deductive approach, which means it has progressed from a general view to a more specific one by studying existing theories, aiming to validate or invalidate hypotheses through empirical evidence. A quantitative research method will be utilized to analyze the data in the empirical part of the thesis. Saunders et al. (2007, p. 145) said “Quantitative is predominantly used as a synonym for any data collection technique (such as a questionnaire) or data analysis procedure (such as graphs or statistics) that generates or uses numerical data.” Also, Austin and Sutton (2014) added that quantitative research involves the analysis of nu- merical data and uses statistics to explore how different variables relate to each other. 50 This method has been selected because it can offer precise numerical data on the com- munication styles in YouTube video ads, allowing for statistical testing of the hypotheses. This approach is preferred over qualitative methods like interviews since it directly quan- tifies attributes within the ads, making it easier to evaluate them in a measurable way. 3.2 Data collection and sample selection The data collection process for this thesis will take place from YouTube in August 2024, focusing on video ads from the FMCG sector in Finland and India. To ensure relevance to local audiences, only ads in Finnish and Hindi—the primary languages of Finland and India—will be included. While the aim was to gather data from local companies, due to data limitations, some ads from global companies targeting local markets are included. In the sample ads, five companies from Finland and ten companies from India are global brands that target local audiences (see Appendix 1 & 2). For instance, although Unilever is a global brand, Hindustan Unilever, which specifically caters to the Indian market, will be considered acceptable. The FMCG sector is categorized into five groups: Dairy, Food, Personal Care, Household Care, and Health Care. Table 2 outlines the products consid- ered under each category. Each company will be represented only once, even if it offers products in multiple categories or subcategories. 51 Table 2. FMCG product categories FMCG categories Product categories Dairy Milk, cheese, and Ice-cream Food Snacks, packaged foods, frozen foods, ready-to-eat meals, and hot drinks Personal care Skincare, haircare, and cosmetics Househod care Cleaning products, laundry detergents, home decor, air fresheners, and pest control products Health care Vitamins, supplements, first aid products, oral care, and hygiene products The sample selection process applies a non-probability sampling technique, specifically purposive sampling. According to Saunders et al. (2007, pp. 226-232) non-probability sampling does not guarantee equal chances of selection for all individuals. Instead, se- lection is based on subjective judgment rather than random choice. For example, in pur- posive sampling, the researcher selects participants who are most likely to provide rele- vant information based on specific criteria. In the first phase of sample selection process, FMCG companies will be identified by fol- lowing the product categories listed in Table 2. Company names will be sourced through Google searches. The process will begin with Finnish companies, followed by similar searches for Indian companies. Keywords like “Milk companies in Finland” or “Food com- panies in India” will be used. The search results will be carefully reviewed until relevant company names are found under each product category. For instance, a search for “Milk companies in Finland” shows a list of dairy product manufacturers in Finland from the Dan & Bradstreet website (Dairy Product Manufacturing Companies in Finland, n.d.) Once the company names are identified, the second phase of the sampling process be- gins. This part involves applying the following inclusion and exclusion criteria: 52 Inclusion Criteria: (1) Ads must be from the official YouTube page of the company. (2) Ads must be the most viewed. (3) Ads must have been published after January 1, 2022, to ensure relevance and reflect recent trends. (4) Ads must represent an FMCG product within one of the designated categories. (5) Ads in Finland must be in Finnish, and ads in India must be in Hindi, ensuring the content targets local audiences. (6) Ads must have a minimum length of 2 seconds and a maximum of 120 seconds. Exclusion Criteria: (1) Non-advertising content such as interviews, online classes, how-to videos, re- cruitment videos, and podcasts will be excluded. (2) Ads that directly represent distribution companies (e.g., Prisma in Finland or Re- liance Fresh in India) will be excluded, as they do not reflect a specific FMCG brand's communication style. (3) Video ads published by third-party YouTube channels, such as fan pages or video production companies, will also be excluded. To apply these criteria, the company’s official website will first be checked for a direct link to their official YouTube page. If no link is found, a search will be conducted on YouTube using the company’s name as a keyword. Once the official YouTube channel is located, the "Videos" tab will be accessed to view all available content. Videos will be filtered by "Popular" to identify the most-viewed ads. It is inferred that the most viewed or popular videos on YouTube are likely those that have been used in paid advertising campaigns. However, it is important to note that identifying which videos were specifi- cally part of an ad campaign cannot be determined solely from publicly available data on a company’s YouTube channel. This specific information is not disclosed. Ideally, verifying which videos were used in campaigns would involve directly contacting the companies involved. However, due to practical limitations, this step was not pursued in this thesis. The publication date in the video description will be checked to ensure it meets the timeframe criteria. If all the inclusion and exclusion criteria are met, the YouTube link and other relevant information will be recorded in a Google Sheet. Figure 10 illustrates the complete sampling process. 53 Figure 10. Sampling process The sampling process for this study has been carefully designed to ensure the reliability and validity of the collected data, providing a representative view of FMCG advertising communication styles in Finland and India. A total of 30 video ads will be collected from each country, resulting in a sample size of 60 ads. This sample size is considered sufficient to capture a variety of communication styles across different FMCG sectors while remaining manageable for detailed content analysis. Each FMCG category will be represented by six video ads. To avoid bias, every company in the sample will be unique, ensuring that no single company’s advertising style disproportionately impacts the results. This approach minimizes bias and offers a broader perspective of the market. 54 The chosen sampling method strengthens the study’s reliability and validity. By selecting an equal number of ads from each FMCG category, the study ensures balanced repre- sentation across various product types, avoiding over-representation of any single cate- gory. Excluding duplicate companies eliminates potential bias from a single company’s advertising culture, promoting diversity in communication styles within the sample. The use of specific inclusion and exclusion criteria further ensures that the ads analyzed are directly relevant to the research questions, representing authentic advertising commu- nication rather than peripheral content. This careful approach to sampling supports the study’s goal of accurately reflecting and comparing the communication styles used in FMCG advertising in Finland and India (see Appendix 1 & 2). 3.3 Data analysis For data to be collected and used effectively, it needs to be analysed in a way that aligns with both its characteristics and the research objectives. In this subchapter, the content analysis and coding methods that will be used in this research will be explained in detail 3.3.1 Content analysis This study employs a comparative content analysis, where two countries are examined separately, and their results are subsequently compared. Content analysis is a research methodology that involves systematically analyzing and interpreting the content of various types of messages, such as texts, images, or any form of communication that carries meaning. It aims to extract valuable insights, patterns, and themes from the content to understand the underlying messages or information being conveyed. Content analysis can be both quantitative and qualitative, providing a structured approach to studying and interpreting communication materials. It is used to 55 make sense of messages, determine textual meaning, and extract meaningful insights from unstructured content through systematic procedures and coding rules. (Gheyle & Jacobs, 2017) Researchers often use content analysis to study how culture is reflected in advertise- ments (Okazaki & Mueller, 2007; as cited in Saleem, 2012, p. 80 ). This method has helped many scholars make important contributions to the understanding of interna- tional advertising (Okazaki & Mueller, 2007; as cited in Saleen, 2012, p.80). Okazaki & Mueller (2007) stated that content analysis is frequently employed in cross-cultural ad- vertising research to understand cultural practices, advertising content, and societal trends. The authors also mentioned that in content analysis, researchers categorise and quantify content to identify patterns, themes, and relationships within the data. As a comparative content analysis, YouTube video ads of FMCG companies from Finland and India will be examined. The FMCG sectors, and particulary YouTube is selected for its consistent production and distribution of video advertising, ensuring a substantial amount of data for analysis. However, critics argue that content analysis may lack a strong theoretical basis, which could weaken its usefulness as a research method. For example, Stephenson (1963) crit- icised content analysis for being too disconnected from real communication issues, re- sulting in overly complicated facts that don't effectively contribute to understanding those issues. Also, Krebs (2015) stated that content analysis also often assumes that the meaning of words and phrases stays the same over time, which isn't always true. This assumption can lead to incorrect interpretations, especially if the context and changes in language over time aren't fully considered. 56 3.3.2 Coding The coding process in this study is designed to systematically analyze the content of online video ads from the FMCG sectors in Finland and India. The coding framework is based on established cultural communication theories, particularly Hall’s high- and low- context culture theory and Hofstede’s individualism-collectivism dimension. The coding attributes are collected from the book Global marketing and advertising: Understanding cultural paradoxes by De Mooij (2021, pp. 402-430). Each advertisement will be catego- rized according to specific attributes that reflect different communication styles, ena- bling a comparative content analysis of how cultural communication styles are reflected in these advertisements. The coding variables, attributes, definition, and coding values are described below in Table 3. Table 3. Coding criteria Low-context attributes Attribute categories Definition Attribute names and codes Coding values 1.Product message It refers to the visual presentation or ex- planation of a product. This is commonly found in low-context cultures where clear, logical details and straightforward presentations are preferred. A "pure dis- play" of a product, where it is merely shown as it would be in a shop window or showroom, does not count as a "Product Message." Pure display is a cul- ture-free form of advertising suitable for international audiences. 1. Logical explanation (LC01) 1= If found 0= If not found 2. Ingredients about the product (LC02) 1= If found 0= If not found 3. Price (LC03) 1= If found 0= If not found 4. Discount/sales (LC04) 1= If found 0= If not found 5. Contact details (LC05) 1= If found 0= If not found 57 2. Corporate presentation It is a documentary-style presentation showcasing the company brand and its product or service, often involving peo- ple associated with the company. In low- context culture, company presentation is more on facts. 6. Direct and person- alised message (LC06) 1= If found 0= If not found 3. Metaphor In low-context culture, metaphor is ver- bal. 7. Verbal metaphor (LC07) 1= If found 0= If not found 4. Celebrity transfer It occurs when a celebrity is associated with a product. In low-context culture celebrity endorse directly about the product. 8. Celebrity direct en- dorsement (LC08) 1= If found 0= If not found 5. Lessons It is direct way of communication, thus mostly common in low-context culture. This way a voiceover or a presenter can directly addressing the audience, demonstrating products, or making a comparisons. The presenter or voiceo- ver should engage the audience di- rectly, with no dialogues between char- acters. "We-style," "you-style," or im- perative forms like “Meet the all-new Ford 150” or “Take control with Nico- trol” are common. 9. Voice-over or pre- senter directly talking to audience (LC09) 1= If found 0= If not found 10. Interview or be interviewed, with or without showing the interviewer (LC10) 1= If found 0= If not found 11. Product demonstration (LC11) 1= If found 0= If not found 12. Product or com- pany comparison (LC12) 1= If found 0= If not found 13. "We-style" or "you-style" or Imperative (LC13) 1= If found 0= If not found 58 6. Endorsement and testimonial It means pure user or experts sharing their experience of a product and it aligns with low-context culture attrib- ute. In individualistic cultures, testimo- nials often include the person’s identity (name, si