Mandana	Shamsuddini	
Third	Culture	Kids:	Citizens	of	everywhere	and	nowhere	
Benefits	of	growing	up	global	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	 	
Vaasa	2021	
School	of	Management		
Master’s	thesis		
Master’s	Degree	Programme	in	
International	Business	
2	
UNIVERSITY	OF	VAASA	
School	of	Management	
Author:		 	 	 Mandana	Shamsuddini	
Title	of	the	Thesis:	 	 Third	Culture	Kids:	Citizens	of	everywhere	and	nowhere:	Bene-
fits	of	growing	up	global	
Degree:		 	 	 Master	of	Science	(Economics	and	Business	Administration)	
Programme:	 	 	 International	Business		
Supervisor:	 	 	 Olivier	Wurtz	
Year:	 	 	 	 2021	 																								Number	of	Pages:	70	
	
ABSTRACT:	
	
Children	who	grew	up	in	a	country	other	than	their	parent's	culture	are	known	as	Third	
Culture	Kids	(TCK)	(Pollock	&	Van	Reken,	2001).	Common	reasons	for	this	may	be	the	
parents'	occupation	or	their	desire	to	move.	TCKs	are	exposed	to	three	cultures	based	
on	ethnicity,	birthplace,	or	place	they	were	raised.	This	background	can	describe	them	
as	citizens	of	the	world.	The	purpose	of	this	research	was	to	study	some	of	the	benefits	
of	growing	up	global	and	the	skills	relevant	to	the	experience.	Some	benefits	and	posi-
tive	effects	that	are	relevant	to	Third	Culture	Kids	are	having	intercultural	competence,	
creativity,	open-mindedness,	resilience,	and	high	performance.	The	research	was	car-
ried	out	as	a	qualitative	study	by	interviewing	six	individuals	whose	background	corre-
sponded	to	a	Third	Culture	Kid.	The	results	were	supported	by	literature,	which	showed	
that	not	only	are	there	benefits	to	being	a	TCK,	but	also	several	positive	influences	that	
are	visible	in	adulthood.	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
KEYWORDS:	 Third	 Culture	 Kids,	 culture,	 diversity,	 multicultural,	 creativity,	 performance,	
openness,	resilience,	intercultural	competence	
	
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Contents	
1	 Introduction	 5	
1.1	 Research	problem	 8	
1.2	 Research	gap	 8	
1.3	 Purpose	and	objectives	 9	
2	 Literature	Review	 11	
2.1	 Third	Culture	Kids	 12	
2.2	 Intercultural	Competence	 15	
2.3	 Culture	and	creativity	 19	
2.4	 Openness	 21	
2.5	 Resilience	 23	
2.6	 Performance	 25	
2.7	 Propositions	 28	
3	 Methodology	 29	
3.1	 Research	philosophy	 29	
3.2	 Research	approach	and	strategy	 30	
3.3	 Data	collection	and	analysis	 31	
3.4	 Limitations,	reliability	and	validity	 33	
4	 Findings	 34	
4.1	 Benefits	and	advantages	of	being	a	TCK	 35	
4.2	 Developed	intercultural	competence	 37	
4.3	 Improved	creativity	 39	
4.4	 Developed	openness	 41	
4.5	 Becoming	resilient	 43	
4.6	 Professional	performance	 45	
4.7	 Positive	impact	 46	
4.8	 Summary	of	the	findings	 48	
5	 Discussion	and	conclusion	 49	
6	 Mangerial	implications	 52	
4	
7	 Future	research	suggestions	 53	
References	 54	
Appendices	 69	
Appendix	1.	Interview	questions	 69	
List	of	Figures	and	Tables	 70	
	
5	
1 Introduction	
Today’s	world	is	becoming	more	global	every	day,	providing	opportunities	for	people	to	
interact	 with	 individuals	 from	 different	 cultures.	 Globalization	 and	 interaction	 with	
diverse	 cultures	 are	 increasing	 and	 there	 can	 be	 several	 benefits	 to	 having	 an	
international	 upbringing,	 which	 will	 be	 introduced	 in	 this	 research.	 Childhood	
experiences	can	influence	how	one	behaves	as	an	adult	in	different	environments	and	
the	skills	developed	can	impact	performance,	creativity,	openness,	and	resilience	as	an	
adult.		
		
The	author	chose	the	following	topic	because	of	her	personal	experience	growing	up	in	
multiple	 cultures,	 as	 well	 as	 noticing	 the	 influences	 as	 an	 adult.	 Multicultural	
experiences	 from	 a	 young	 age	 can	 transform	 and	 change	 how	 an	 individual	 carries	
themselves	and	behaves	and	having	a	diverse	background	can	bring	opportunities	and	
prosperity	once	 the	person	decides	 to	 settle	 in	one	 location.	Research	 suggests	 that	
positive	 beliefs	 on	 diversity	 are	 well	 known	 to	 support	 members	 of	 different	
backgrounds	and	take	advantage	of	their	differences,	for	example	by	reducing	conflicts	
and	increasing	collaboration.	(Homan	et	al.,	2007)	
		
This	research	paper	will	focus	on	Third	Culture	Kids	and	some	positive	outcomes	of	the	
individual's	experiences.	Pollock	et	al.,	 (2017)	defined	Third	Culture	Kids	as	 someone	
who	 has	 spent	many	 years	 of	 their	 childhood	 away	 from	 their	 parents’	 culture.	 For	
example,	the	author	of	this	research	was	born	in	Finland	with	both	parents	being	Iranian	
and	 having	 spent	 childhood	 between	 the	 ages	 5-	 15	 in	 China,	 Taiwan,	 and	 United	
Kingdom.	Children	who	are	categorized	as	TCKs	are	influenced	by	their	parent's	culture	
and	 the	 culture	 they	have	been	 raised	 in.	Once	 they	move	 to	 a	 new	 country	with	 a	
different	 culture,	 this	 becomes	 the	 “third”	 culture	 for	 the	 child.	 The	 TCK	 forms	
connections	to	all	the	cultures,	while	not	having	full	ownership	in	any.	According	to	Kim	
(2001),	 “with	physical	and	psychological	distance	 from	 familiar	milieus,	 strangers	are	
awakened	from	their	taken-for-granted	assumptions	with	a	heightened	sense	of	self”.		
6	
When	 one	 steps	 out	 of	 their	 comfort	 zone,	 great	 development	 can	 occur,	 both	
personally	and	professionally.		
	
Studies	have	also	found	that	multicultural	experiences,	such	as	living	or	studying	abroad	
can	enhance	creativity.	Although	this	research	paper	focuses	on	the	experiences	of	TCKs,	
multicultural	experiences	are	relevant	to	these	individuals	as	well.	When	one	interacts	
with	diverse	backgrounds,	 it	 inspires	them	to	think	out-of-the-box	and	be	innovative.	
According	to	Maddux	and	Galinsky	(2020),	those	who	have	lived	abroad	could	carry	out	
certain	 creative	 tasks	 in	 comparison	 to	 those	who	did	not	have	 abroad	experiences.	
Openness	and	being	willing	to	become	familiar	with	a	foreign	culture	are	also	related	to	
enhancing	creativity.		
	
Cross-cultural	 experiences	 can	 influence	 an	 individual’s	 performance	 and	 personal	
development	 from	 a	 professional	 perspective.	 Although	 this	 is	 an	 advantage,	
repatriation	 can	 be	 challenging.	 Other	 research	 has	 also	 shown	 that	 personal	
development	is	enhanced	after	students	have	spent	time	abroad	as	well	as	boosts	their	
self-confidence,	 communication	 skills,	 ability	 to	 think	 critically,	 and	 tolerance	 for	
ambiguity.	(Hensley	and	Sel,	1979)	
	
When	it	comes	to	Third	Culture	Kids,	the	influences	can	vary	as	these	individuals	have	
often	 spent	 a	 significant	 amount	 of	 their	 childhood	 and	 adolescence	 in	 different	
countries.	The	cross-cultural	outcomes,	such	as	a	sense	of	belonging	can	become	more	
visible	in	their	adult	years.	According	to	the	study	by	Byttner	(2012),	many	adult	TCKs	
have	the	urge	to	move	frequently	instead	of	staying	in	one	place.	This	research	aims	to	
achieve	an	in-depth	insight	into	the	lives	of	TCKs,	some	benefits	and	positive	outcomes	
of	cross-cultural	experiences,	and	how	they	influence	TCK’s	creativity,	performance,	and	
openness.	Other	benefits	and	advantages	will	also	be	discussed.		
	
	
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There	is	limited	previous	research	on	TCKs	which	focuses	on	the	different	perspectives,	
advantages,	disadvantages	as	well	as	the	physical	and	emotional	changes	that	individuals	
with	a	global	upbringing	go	through.	As	international	schooling	and	a	global	career	at-
tract	many	young	adults	or	those	with	a	background	of	living	in	multiple	countries,	it	is	
essential	to	gain	a	deep	understanding	of	the	qualities,	behaviours,	and	skills	these	indi-
viduals	develop.		Schools,	employers,	and	parents	with	an	international	career	can	then	
understand	these	individuals	better	and	support	their	future	aspirations.		
	
According	to	Smith	(2019),	TCKs	are	culturally	intelligent	and	open-minded.	Additionally,	
she	states	that	they	are	adaptive,	communicative,	exceptional	team	players	and	leaders,	
as	well	as	have	the	ability	to	create	value.	Pollock	(2009)	has	examined	that	TCKs	are	
sensitive	to	diversity	and	inclusions.	These	individuals	are	able	to	put	their	focus	on	sim-
ilarities	rather	than	differences.	Strong	interpersonal	skills	are	also	skills	that	TCKs	de-
velop	and	use	in	a	diverse	work	environment.	Other	skills	that	Kruse	(2012)	states	in	a	
Forbes	article	are	creativity	and	flexibility,	which	are	two	of	the	top	traits	that	CEOs	look	
for.	This	shows	how	beneficial	and	appreciated	these	skills	are.		
	
It	has	been	researched	that	TCKs	are	adaptive	and	have	a	high	tolerance	for	ambiguity.	
They	“can	generally	approach	various	changes	in	their	life	circumstances	with	some	de-
gree	of	confidence	because	past	experience	has	taught	them	that	given	enough	time,	
everything	will	fall	into	place.	This	sense	that	they’ll	be	able	to	manage	new	situations	
often	gives	them	the	security	to	go	take	risks	others	might	not”	(Pollock	et	al.,	2017).	
This	is	closely	related	to	the	skill	of	being	resilient,	which	will	be	discussed	further	in	this	
research.	
	
Although	previous	research	has	been	carried	out	on	TCKs,	there	is	no	prior	information	
on	 the	benefits	and	positive	outcomes	of	growing	up	global	and	how	these	skills	are	
essential	in	a	multicultural	environment	as	adults.	The	in-depth	positive	influences	are	
8	
examined	through	approaches	such	as	culture	and	creativity,	openness,	as	well	as	per-
formance.	The	above	outcomes	are	selected	because	they	are	relevant	and	relatable	to	
the	author,	appropriate	to	measure	as	well	as	valued	by	employees	as	mentioned	earlier.		
	
1.1 Research	problem	
The	need	for	studying	Third	Culture	Kids	is	closely	related	to	parents	who	move	to	mul-
tiple	countries	due	to	employment	and	the	effects	and	transitions	their	children	face.	
The	experiences	that	TCKs	go	through	during	childhood	will	create	their	characteristics	
and	skills	as	an	adult.	It	is	important	to	understand	the	impact	of	the	TCK	phenomenon	
on	an	individual	and	collective	level	as	well	as	the	significance	of	multicultural	experi-
ences.	 	Additionally,	the	study	aims	to	help	younger	generations	comprehend	the	ad-
vantages	that	could	be	gained	from	growing	up	globally.	Finally,	understanding	the	per-
sonal	and	professional	benefits	of	being	a	TCK	is	essential,	both	the	working	life	as	well	
as	in	social	settings.		
	
1.2 Research	gap		
Since	relocating	around	the	world	continues	to	be	a	trend,	it	is	essential	for	employers,	
managers,	teachers,	parents,	and	colleagues	to	understand	the	background	of	TCKs	and	
be	able	to	utilise	the	value	they	can	add	and	their	diversity	of	thought.	There	has	been	
an	 increase	 in	 globalisation	 and	 the	 possibilities	 to	 travel	 (James,	 2014)	 as	 well	 as	
schooling	 options	 have	 become	 broader,	 to	 offer	 better	 choices	 and	 international	
curricula	 in	more	 places	 (Tanu,	 2015).	 Communication	methods	 have	 also	 increased	
leaving	TCKs	the	possibility	to	keep	in	contact	with	friends	who	live	in	any	part	of	the	
world.		
	
	The	skills	that	TCKs	acquire	may	not	be	recognized	domestically	nor	globally,	as	many	
are	not	 familiar	with	 the	 term	 “Third	Culture	Kids”	 and	 their	 backgrounds.	Although	
previous	research	provides	relevant	information,	it	is	important	to	have	recent	research	
on	the	topic.	As	there	are	previous	studies	on	the	concerns	of	TCKs,	loss,	grief,	identity	
development	as	well	as	repatriation	(Sellers,	2011),	 this	 leaves	scope	to	focus	on	the	
9	
advantages	and	benefits.	There	is	minimal	prior	research	on	the	benefits	and	positive	
outcomes	 for	children	with	a	global	upbringing	and	on	those	who	are	categorized	as	
TCKs.	With	this	study,	the	aim	is	to	provide	more	understanding	and	knowledge	on	TCKs’	
experiences	and	how	they	have	had	an	influence	in	their	adult	 lives.	 In	this	research,	
several	approaches	are	combined	with	in-depth	literature.	
	
1.3 Purpose	and	objectives		
The	 importance	of	 this	 topic	 can	be	perceived	 from	the	 increasing	 interest	 in	people	
wanting	to	experience	multiculturalism.	People	may	want	to	relocate	for	career	or	stud-
ying	opportunities,	a	desire	for	change,	and	a	passion	for	traveling.	Globalization	and	the	
competence	that	comes	with	it	are	highly	valued	by	employers.	Thus,	understanding	cul-
turally	diverse	individuals	is	essential.	
	
The	primary	purpose	of	the	research	paper	is	to	introduce	a	theoretical	framework	on	
Third	Culture	Kids	and	some	benefits	and	positive	outcomes	of	childhood	cross-cultural	
experiences.	In	order	to	succeed,	it	will	require	evaluating	different	effects	and	cultural	
approaches.	Additionally,	existing	studies	will	be	examined	thoroughly.	This	leads	to	the	
following	research	question:		
	
“What	are	some	benefits	of	growing	up	globally	for	Third	Culture	Kids?”		
	
Research	objectives	are	set	to	provide	direction	and	clarity.	The	objectives	will	assist	in	
answering	the	research	question	in	more	detail.	Additionally,	they	will	help	the	reader	
understand	the	theme	of	the	research	paper.	The	following	objectives	have	been	set:		
	
1.	 To	identify	the	qualities	and	characteristics	of	TCKs.		
2.	 To	determine	creativity,	performance,	 intercultural	 competence,	 resilience,	and	
openness-related	benefits	for	TCKs.		
3.	 To	analyse	the	findings	of	the	TCKs	interviewed	and	how	the	positive	impacts	are	
visible	now	during	their	adult	lives.	
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4.	 To	assess	whether	the	interviews	support	the	theoretical	framework.		
	
To	find	a	solution	to	the	research	question,	the	research	paper	will	study	and	assess	the	
theoretical	framework	based	on	benefits	and	positive	outcomes	of	growing	up	global.	
TCKs	and	the	influences	of	their	multicultural	experiences	are	studied	in-depth	focusing	
on	different	elements.	The	theoretical	framework	will	consist	of	approaches	related	to	
physical	and	emotional	changes	and	transitions.		
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2 Literature	Review		
The	theoretical	part	of	the	research	paper	will	consist	of	several	approaches.	The	first	
part	will	focus	on	Third	Culture	Kids,	followed	by	intercultural	competence.	The	study	
on	culture	and	creativity	by	Maddux	and	Galinsky	will	also	be	examined.	Lastly,	perfor-
mance,	openness,	and	resilience	will	be	included.	The	emphasis	will	be	on	the	impacts	
and	benefits	that	cross-cultural	experiences	have	on	TCKs.		
		
Firstly,	the	concept	of	Third	Culture	Kids	will	be	discussed	and	defined	in	depth	based	on	
relevant	theory.	This	will	provide	an	overview	and	the	characteristics	of	the	main	topic	
of	the	research	paper.		
			
Intercultural	competence	and	concepts	such	as	the	Developmental	Model	of	 Intercul-
tural	Sensitivity	(DMIS)	are	examined,	which	focuses	on	how	people	experience	cultural	
differences.	The	theory	of	the	concept	will	be	studied	in	detail	in	order	to	understand	
TCKs	better	and	how	they	manage	to	develop	the	skill	of	intercultural	competence	dur-
ing	their	experiences	abroad.	There	are	six	stages	in	the	model	which	are,	denial,	de-
fense,	minimization,	acceptance,	adaptation,	and	integration.	(Cushner	et	al.,	2012)	The	
concept	and	its	relevance	to	TCKs	will	also	be	discussed.		
		
The	next	concept	examined	is	culture	and	creativity	by	Maddux	and	Galinsky	(2020).	It	
has	been	researched	that	multicultural	experiences	enhance	creativity.	To	gain	a	deeper	
insight	 in	this	paper,	TCKs	and	the	effects	of	 foreign	experiences	on	creativity	will	be	
studied	based	on	theories.		
		
Another	important	factor	related	to	TCKs	is	openness	and	resilience.	The	terms	will	be	
defined	and	discussed	how	the	experiences	of	TCKs	lead	to	openness	and	the	ability	to	
be	resilient	in	their	adult	years.		
	
Performance	and	its	impact	on	TCKs	is	the	last	element	discussed	with	supporting	liter-
ature.		
12	
2.1 Third	Culture	Kids	
The	background	of	the	term	Third	Culture	Kids	comes	from	John	and	Ruth	Hill	Useem	in	
the	1960s	when	they	saw	American	expatriate	families	living	in	India.	They	discovered	
that	children	developed	a	third	culture	that	was	created	from	the	culture	of	the	home	
country	and	the	second	culture,	the	culture	of	the	host	country.	It	is	common	for	TCKs	
to	move	from	country	to	country	and	not	stay	in	one	place.	They	grow	up	assuming	to	
return	to	their	passport	country	(Cockbum,	2002).		
	
The	parents	of	TCKs	have	different	career	backgrounds	which	lead	to	having	a	mobile	
lifestyle.	 TCKs	 are	 categorized	 according	 to	 their	 parent’s	 occupation.	 They	 are	 also	
known	as	military	brats,	government	kids,	meaning	diplomat	brats,	missionary	kids,	and	
expatriate	brats.	(Byttner,	2012)	For	this	reason,	many	who	are	TCKs	may	not	be	familiar	
with	the	term	but	their	background	and	upbringing	indicate	them	as	belonging	to	this	
group	of	people.		
	
There	are	many	components	in	a	child’s	life	that	affect	their	growth,	development,	and	
progress.	Education	is	one	example.	The	education	of	TCKs	is	international	and	continu-
ous	transitions	in	changing	schools	are	part	of	the	process.	The	schools	they	attend	are	
usually	private	British	or	American	international	schools	where	TCKs	often	do	not	learn	
the	local	language	(Byttner,	2012).	TCKs	have	the	privilege	of	achieving	a	unique	educa-
tion	through	experience.	Classrooms	and	books	cannot	teach	a	child	in	the	same	way	as	
learning	a	 language	or	culture	 in	the	streets,	shops,	and	being	surrounded	by	 it	daily.	
Moreover,	TCKs	may	not	realise	that	they	are	gaining	an	education	and	deep	knowledge	
on	many	aspects	of	their	lives	with	only	having	an	international	upbringing.		
	
Once	a	TCK	is	an	adult,	they	are	referred	to	as	Adult	Third	Culture	Kids.	(Pollock	et	al.,	
2017).	 There	 are	 limited	 studies	 on	 how	 adult	 TCKs	 understand	 the	 influences	 that	
change	in	place,	culture,	and	languages	have	on	them	when	they	become	adults	(Fail	et	
al.,	2004;	Selmer	&	Lam,	2004).		
13	
However,	previous	research	states	that	adult	TCKs	tend	to	follow	the	career	paths	of	their	
parents	or	become	expatriates,	giving	them	the	opportunity	to	continue	living	globally	
(Selmer	&	Lam,	2004).	Although,	the	results	from	research	made	by	Cottrell	and	Useem	
(1999)	show	that	not	many	TCKs	followed	their	parent’s	career	paths.	It	can	be	a	natural	
transition	to	move	around	the	world	as	adults	since	global	mobility	is	often	built	in	for	
these	individuals.		
	
The	characteristics	of	TCKs	who	have	grown	up	in	different	cultures	include	being	open-
minded,	adaptable,	accepting	towards	dissimilarities,	as	well	as	strong	 language	skills	
(Choi	et	al.,	2013).	An	example	of	a	TCK	is	former	U.S.	President,	Barack	Obama.	He	was	
born	with	an	American	mother	and	a	Kenyan	father	and	went	to	an	International	School	
in	Indonesia	for	some	time.	Obama	represents	a	person	who	has	great	global	awareness,	
is	socially	adjustable,	intellectually	adaptable,	has	different	thinking	skills,	and	is	partly	
restless	 (Dewaele	&	Van	Oudenhoven,	 2009).	Any	 TCK	 can	develop	 these	 same	 skills	
through	multicultural	experiences	during	childhood.	Although	multicultural	experiences	
and	skills	can	be	developed	during	adult	years	as	well,	the	long-term	influences	may	vary	
from	a	person	who	has	been	brought	up	globally	since	childhood.		
	
There	are	different	characteristics	and	coping	strategies	for	TCKs.	It	is	common	for	TCKs	
to	become	“global	nomads”	and	continue	to	relocate	as	adults,	finding	a	place	to	call	
“home”.	The	concept	of	“home”	becomes	broader,	people	become	home	rather	than	
locations.	Another	characteristic	is	patriotism,	referring	to	TCKs	feeling	global	and	con-
nected	to	multiple	countries	and	cultures.	Moreover,	as	 they	are	 influenced	by	many	
languages,	they	usually	become	bilingual,	which	is	a	trait	that	is	beneficial	during	adult	
years	anywhere	 in	 the	world.	 Lastly,	TCKs	have	 the	cultural	 chameleon	skill,	 they	can	
adapt	to	new	cultures	and	behave	accordingly.	(Crosman,	2016)	
	
	
	
14	
Moving	to	multiple	countries	and	familiarising	with	different	cultures	during	childhood	
has	many	advantages	as	well	as	challenges	from	which	TCKs	can	develop	and	grow.	Ad-
vantages	include	having	an	expanded	worldview,	cross-cultural	enrichment,	adaptability,	
less	prejudice,	early	maturity,	and	living	in	the	moment.	The	challenges	they	may	face	
include	confused	loyalties,	being	misunderstood,	having	a	painful	view	of	reality,	judging	
others,	delayed	adolescence,	rootlessness,	and	restlessness.	(Pollock	et	al.,	2017)		
	
Pollock	et	al.,	(2017)	explain	the	importance	of	mobility	and	why	it	matters.	The	benefits	
of	TCKs	mobility	include	the	opportunity	to	travel,	independence,	many	friends,	broad	
options,	language	skills,	and	a	sense	of	confidence.	Other	benefits	that	TCKs	develop	are	
having	an	expanded	worldview,	meaning	that	they	understand	how	people	from	differ-
ent	cultures	view	life	from	a	philosophical	and	political	perspective.	Another	benefit	that	
Pollock	et	al.,	(2017)	state	is	that	TCKs	have	a	three-dimensional	view	of	the	world	as	
well	as	cross-cultural	enrichment.	This	means	that	they	have	experienced	the	world	in	
many	ways	and	gained	deep	knowledge	on	being	multicultural	through	hands-on	expe-
riences	from	a	young	age.		
	
TCKs	develop	practical	skills	during	their	years	in	different	countries.	These	include	cross-
cultural,	observational,	social,	and	 linguistic	skills	which	are	developed	and	practiced.	
Although	new	friendships	can	bring	challenges	since	changing	locations	leads	to	leaving	
friends	and	making	new	ones,	the	Internet	has	been	the	tool	for	TCKs	to	keep	in	contact	
with	friends	around	the	world.	(Pollock	et	al.,	2017)	
	
When	individuals	are	surrounded	by	many	cultures	from	childhood	it	can	lead	them	to	
be	more	inclusive	towards	differences	and	accept	diversity.	Children	who	are	involved	in	
culturally	approachable	education	lead	them	to	build	self-confidence,	increase	aware-
ness	and	appreciation	as	well	as	high	academic	achievements	(“Cultural	Diversity”,	n.d.).	
	
	
	
15	
2.2 Intercultural	Competence		
Intercultural	competence	is	an	important	skill	when	interacting	with	multicultural	people,	
whether	in	one's	country	of	origin	or	abroad.	Deardorff	and	Hunter	(2004)	describe	in-
tercultural	competence	as	“the	ability	to	communicate	effectively	and	appropriately	in	
intercultural	 situations	 based	 on	 one’s	 intercultural	 knowledge,	 skills,	 and	 attitudes”.		
Fantini	and	Tirmizi	(2006)	refer	to	intercultural	competence	being	the	skill	to	cooperate	
with	people	who	have	a	different	language	and	culture.		
	
Research	by	de	Waal	et	al.,	(2020),	shows	that	that	TCKs	had	more	optimistic	diversity	
views	than	non-TCKs.	Furthermore,	TCKs	presented	better	intercultural	sensitivity,	com-
munication,	and	commitment	 than	those	who	are	not	TCKs.	Throughout	 the	years	of	
childhood	and	adolescence,	TCKs	have	faced	diverse	perceptions	because	of	living	over-
seas	than	have	most	non	TCKs	with	the	experience	of	just	one	culture.		
	
The	following	chapter	will	discuss	three	intercultural	competence	models.	The	first	is	the	
Developmental	Model	of	Intercultural	Sensitivity	(DMIS)	created	by	Bennet	(1986-1993),	
the	second	is	the	Intercultural	Communicative	Competence	model	(ICC)	by	Byram	(1997),	
and	lastly	the	Cultural	Intelligence	(CQ)	model	by	Earley	and	Ang	(2003).	The	concepts	
and	their	relevance	to	TCKs	will	also	be	discussed.		
	
The	Developmental	Model	of	Intercultural	Sensitivity	(DMIS)	is	a	relevant	theory	to	the	
research	topic	as	it	consists	of	six	stages	regarding	experiencing	cultural	differences.	The	
first	three	phases	are	ethnocentric:	denial,	defense,	and	minimization.	The	other	three	
stages	are	ethnorelative:	acceptance,	adaptation,	and	integration.	(Bennett,	2017)	
	
Denial	refers	to	the	denial	of	cultural	differences.	This	occurs	when	individuals	who	pre-
fer	stability	are	 in	a	situation	where	they	must	become	aware	of	others,	who	may	be	
foreigners	or	minorities.	They	are	not	interested	in	intercultural	communication.	The	se-
cond	stage	in	the	ethnocentric	category	is	defense,	which	refers	to	defense	against	cul-
tural	differences.	These	people	are	usually	critical	of	other	cultures	and	blame	cultural	
16	
differences	for	the	troubles	of	society.	They	view	“us”	as	superior	and	“them”	as	inferior.	
Resolving	the	defense	stage	can	be	achieved	by	focusing	on	factors	that	the	two	cultures	
have	 in	common	such	as,	equal	humanity	as	well	as	shared	values.	The	third	stage	 is	
minimization,	 which	 refers	 to	 tolerating	 some	 cultural	 differences.	 Individuals	 in	 this	
stage	accept	similarities	and	tend	to	deny	differences.	(Bennett,	1986,	2017)	
	
The	next	three	stages	are	ethnorelative,	meaning	all	cultures	are	considered	equal.	Ac-
ceptance	is	the	fourth	stage	in	the	DMIS	theory	and	refers	to	people	being	curious	and	
respectful	towards	other	cultures.	Cultures	are	not	categorized	into	being	“good”	or	“bad”	
but	rather	different.	The	fifth	stage	is	adaptation.	In	this	stage,	people	tend	to	be	empa-
thetic	and	expand	their	worldview	to	adapt	and	behave	in	a	culturally	correct	way.		The	
last	stage	is	integration.	Individuals	at	this	stage	have	achieved	cultural	sensitivity	and	
are	multicultural.	Bennet	(1986)	states	that	these	people	“experience	difference	as	an	
essential	and	joyful	aspect	of	all	life.”	(Bennett,	1986,	2017)	The	DMIS	model	allows	one	
to	understand	worldviews	and	the	change	that	happens	with	cross-cultural	experience.		
	
The	Intercultural	Communicative	Competence	model	(ICC)	by	Byram	(1997)	is	made	up	
of	 four	 competencies:	 linguistic	 competence,	 sociolinguistic	 competence,	 discourse	
competence,	and	 intercultural	competence.	The	model	 includes	five	5	Savoirs:	Savoir,	
Savoir	Être,	Savoir	Comprendre,	Savoir	Faire/Apprendre,	and	Savoir	S’engager.	The	term	
savoir	 is	 a	 French	 term	 that	 means	 knowledge	 and	 understanding.	 Savoir	 is	 the	
knowledge	of	self	and	others	as	well	as	the	process	of	interaction	in	different	cultures.	
Savoir-être	refers	to	having	a	curious	and	open	approach	towards	cultures.	Savoir	Com-
prendre	means	the	skills	of	interpreting	documents	or	concepts	of	another	culture.	Sa-
voir	Faire/Apprendre	refers	 to	 the	skills	of	discovery	of	a	new	culture	and	 interaction	
abilities.	Lastly,	savoir	s’engager	refers	to	critical	cultural	awareness	and	acting	accord-
ingly.	(Byram,	1997,	Byram	et	al.,2002)	
	
17	
The	results	of	a	research	made	by	Szuba	(2016)	show	that	young	children	with	a	multi-
lingual	education	present	skills,	attitudes,	and	knowledge	related	with	Intercultural	Com-
municative	Competence.	Therefore,	the	concept	of	ICC	is	significant	to	children	and	not	
only	adults.		
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
Figure	1:	Byram's	model	of	intercultural	communicative	competence	(Byram,	1997)	
	
The	third	significant	concept	is	the	Cultural	Intelligence	(CQ)	model,	by	Earley	and	Ang,	
(2003).	They	defined	the	term	as	a	person’s	ability	to	effectively	adapt	to	new	cultural	
surroundings.	Ang	et	al.	(2007)	explain	the	CQ	as	a	four	feature	model	with	metacogni-
tive,	cognitive,	motivational,	and	behavioural	cultural	intelligence.	Metacognitive	CQ	re-
fers	to	the	mental	skill	to	obtain	and	comprehend	cultural	awareness.	Cognitive	CQ	fo-
cuses	on	knowledge	about	cultures	and	cultural	differences.	The	third	 factor,	motiva-
tional	CQ	refers	to	the	interest	and	effort	in	performing	effectively	in	intercultural	situa-
tions.	Lastly,	behavioural	CQ	refers	to	the	flexibility	of	an	individual	in	intercultural	set-
tings.		
	
	
INTERCULTURAL	COMMUNICATIVE	COMPETENCE	
linguistic	
competence	
	
sociolinguistic	
competence	
	
discourse	
competence	
	
intercultural	
competence	
	
  
savoirs	
savoir	comprende	
savoir	apprendre/faire	
savoir	s’engager	
savoir	être	
18	
There	are	differences	between	cross-cultural	experiences	and	TCKs.	Cross-cultural	is	de-
fined	as	“dealing	with	or	offering	comparison	between	two	or	more	different	cultures	or	
cultural	areas”	(Merriam-Webster.	(n.d.)).	Any	individual	can	have	cross-cultural	experi-
ences	whereas	TCKs	are	children	with	a	cross-cultural	upbringing.	The	experiences	of	
TCKs	lead	them	to	be	cross-cultural	individuals.			
	
Intercultural	 competencies	 and	 experiences	 are	 relevant	 to	 TCKs	 because	 they	 go	
through	different	stages	when	moving	around	different	countries	at	a	young	age	and	are	
continuously	put	into	new	cultures	and	surroundings.	According	to	Sellers	(2011),	TCKs	
share	 perspectives	 that	 are	 relevant	 to	 intercultural	 awareness	 from	 their	 childhood	
abroad,	including	knowledge	of	different	cultures,	understanding	of	cultural	influences,	
and	understanding	cultural	differences.	Lam	and	Selmer	(2004)	found	in	research	that	
TCK	participants	are	more	likely	than	monoculture	participants	to	accept	international	
awareness.	
	
Kim	et	al.,	(2006)	state	that	developing	intercultural	competence	in	childhood	is	created	
by	increasing	consciousness	of	the	diversity	of	cultures	and	facing	multiculturalism	daily.	
Additionally,	discussions	on	cross-cultural	differences	support	children’s	ability	to	recog-
nize	situations	in	which	they	can	act	with	more	sensitivity	towards	other	cultures	
DoBroka	(2012).	Furthermore,	the	early	development	of	the	mentioned	skills	not	only	
strengthens	the	identity	and	knowledge	of	children's	cultures	but	also	advances	the	de-
velopment	of	openness	and	sensitivity	towards	others.	These	are	important	advantages	
since	stereotypes	and	prejudices	are	visible	even	in	very	young	children	(Powlishta	et	al.,	
1994).	
	
	
	
	
	
	
19	
2.3 Culture	and	creativity		
Vygotsky	(2004)	describes	creativity	as	a	“human	act	that	gives	rise	to	something	new	is	
referred	to	as	a	creative	act,	regardless	of	whether	what	is	created	is	a	physical	object	or	
some	mental	or	emotional	construct	that	lives	within	the	person	who	created	it	and	is	
known	 only	 to	 him”.	Maley	 (2003)	 describes	 creativity	 as	 “making	 something	 new”,	
“perceiving	old	things	in	new	ways,”	“finding	new	connections”,	or	“evoking	pleasurable	
surprise”.	 Culture	 is	 defined	 by	Matsumoto,	 (1996)	 as	 “	 the	 set	 of	 attitudes,	 values,	
beliefs,	 and	behaviors	 shared	by	a	group	of	people,	but	different	 for	each	 individual,	
communicated	from	one	generation	to	the	next”.		
	
When	an	individual	is	surrounded	by	multiple	cultures,	studies	have	shown	that	this	in-
creases	one’s	creativity.	According	to	Maddux	and	Galinsky	(2008),	creativity	is	boosted	
when	 individuals	 live	abroad	and	 learn	about	new	cultures.	When	one	 is	 exposed	 to	
many	cultures	it	leads	to	various	perspectives	(Maddux	et	al.,	2009).	Furthermore,	peo-
ple	who	are	more	open	to	experiences	value	diverse	interactions	and	sustain	a	positive	
attitude	towards	them,	which	leads	to	gaining	knowledge	from	these	experiences	and	
becoming	creative	(Leung	&	Chiu,	2008).		
	
Research	also	suggests	that	in	early	childhood	bilingualism	leads	to	enhanced	creativity	
(Leikin	&	Tovli,	2014).	Maddux	et	al.	(2010)	discovered	that	profound	knowledge	about	
new	cultures	was	also	a	key	indicator	of	increased	creativity	following	living	abroad	ex-
periences.	TCKs	are	evidently	in	this	category	of	constantly	learning	about	new	cultures	
and	developing	innovativeness	in	various	ways.		
	
Multicultural	interactions	influence	positively	divergent	and	creative	thinking	as	the	skills	
and	knowledge	required	for	creative	thinking	and	performance	are	established	through	
cultural	relationships	(Glăveanu,	2010).	Additionally,	students	who	had	the	experience	
of	studying	abroad	also	performed	better	on	creativity	tasks	(Lee	et	al.,	2012).	
	
20	
Once	a	TCK	is	an	adult	and	steps	into	the	working	world,	they	have	had	the	benefit	of	
developing	creative	skills	during	their	childhood,	therefore	they	fulfil	the	requirement	of	
being	able	 to	be	 innovative	 in	a	position	and	bring	more	value	 into	 the	organization.		
According	to	Wrede	and	Dauth	(2020),	companies	and	organizations	with	international	
top	management	 teams	 resulted	 in	higher	 levels	of	 firm	 innovativeness	 compared	 to	
firms	with	only	local	top	management	teams.	This	is	another	indication	of	how	creativity	
is	a	significant	part	of	multicultural	experiences.		
	
Creativity	 is	 fundamental	 for	 increasing	 professional	 and	 personal	 success	 (Cheng	 &	
Leung,	2012).	Furthermore,	employees	with	broad	experience	in	multicultural	environ-
ments	enable	them	to	understand	other	cultures’	views	and	ways	of	thinking	as	well	as	
create	new	ideas	practically	and	have	the	ability	to	solve	problems	efficiently	(Wang	&	
Wang,	2018).	One	reason	why	creativity	is	included	in	this	study	is	that	in	a	workplace	
creativity	is	considered	the	main	success	factor	for	a	business	(Liu,	2018).	Additionally,	
diversity	in	the	workforce	can	improve	individual	and	group	creativity	in	comparison	to	
less	diverse	organizations	(Han	et	al.,	2011	&	Hoever	et	al.,	2012).	
	
Creativity	is	relevant	to	TCKs	is	because	when	children	are	exposed	daily	to	perspectives	
of	two	different	cultures,	they	learn	that	there	are	often	many	ways	to	solve	a	problem	
(White,	2015).		Furthermore,	Shao	et	al.,	(2019)	state	that	no	one	can	live	well	and	be	
creative	without	the	association	of	culture.	This	is	an	indication	that	creativity	and	cul-
ture	can	be	linked	in	some	way.	Lastly,	a	recent	study	by	Aytug	et	al.,	(2018)	discovered	
that	multicultural	interactions	were	associated	with	creativity.	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
21	
2.4 Openness		
According	to	Fuertes	et	al.,	(2000)	openness	to	diversity	is	viewed	as	“an	awareness	and	
potential	acceptance	of	both	similarities	and	differences	in	others”.	This	can	be	shown	
by	expressing	beliefs,	feelings,	and	behaviours.	Openness	is	defined	as	“the	quality	of	
being	able	to	think	about,	accept	or	listen	to	different	ideas	or	people”	(Oxford	University	
Press,	2021).	
	
TCKs	have	a	strong	international	experience	and	exposure	to	diversity	during	their	up-
bringing	as	well	as	bilingual	traits,	family	diversity,	and	the	personality	trait	of	openness	
to	experience.	This	may	lead	to	having	the	curiosity	to	learn	and	interact	with	new	cul-
tures	in	their	developmental	years,	which	is	coherent	with	past	research	on	TCKs	which	
suggested	that	 international	experiences	during	childhood	can	offer	skills	that	today’s	
employers	require.		
	
According	to	Van	der	Zee	and	Van	Oudenhoven	(2000,	2001),	there	are	five	dimensions	
of	multicultural	competence.	These	are	cultural	empathy,	open-mindedness,	emotional	
stability,	social	initiative,	and	flexibility.	Cultural	empathy	means	to	be	able	to	“empa-
thize	with	the	feelings,	thoughts,	and	behaviours”	of	people	from	a	different	culture.	
The	second	dimension	which	is	open-mindedness	indicates	an	open	and	unbiased	ap-
proach	 towards	different	members,	norms,	and	cultural	values.	Emotional	 stability	 is	
another	multicultural	competence	dimension	and	is	related	to	the	ability	to	stay	calm	in	
stressful	situations	vs.	learning	to	show	feelings	in	stressful	settings.	Social	initiative	re-
fers	to	approaching	social	circumstances	actively	and	taking	the	initiative	to	speak,	lead	
or	interact	with	other	people.	Lastly,	flexibility	suggests	the	skill	to	accept	uncertainty	
and	adjust	behaviour	to	new	situations	(Van	der	Zee	&	Van	Oudenhoven,	2000).	All	men-
tioned	dimensions	are	skills	that	TCKs	practice	throughout	living	in	multiple	cultures	and	
are	needed	in	during	their	professional	life.		
	
	
22	
Openness	to	experience	is	one	of	the	qualities	in	the	five-factor	model,	also	known	as	
the	Big	Five	personality	traits.	The	term	refers	to	individuals	who	are	open-minded	and	
are	eager	to	experience	new	things	(LePine,	2003).	They	are	also	described	as	being	im-
aginative,	curious,	unconventional,	socially	tolerant,	and	fascinated	with	visual	experi-
ences	such	as	art	and	music	(Costa	&	McCrae,	1992;	John	&	Srivastava,	1999).		
	
A	study	by	Sparkman	et	al.,	2016	confirms	that	individuals	who	are	exposed	to	different	
cultures	were	rated	higher	in	Openness	to	Experience	as	well	as	showed	less	prejudice	
towards	cross-cultural	groups.	Chiu	and	Cheng,	(2007)	state	that	reaching	cultural	diver-
sity	is	a	“profoundly	enriching	process	that	opens	minds	to	new	experiences”.		
	
Researchers	claimed	that	individuals	with	a	high	tolerance	for	ambiguity	tend	to	be	effi-
cient	and	manage	the	stress	followed	by	rapidly	changing,	uncertain	environments,	and	
to	be	more	adaptable	and	receptive	to	change	(Judge	et	al.,	1999).	Moreover,	individuals	
who	have	spent	their	childhood	in	various	cultures	tend	to	be	more	open,	accepting,	and	
globally-minded.	
	
When	it	comes	to	the	traits	of	TCKs,	the	typical	profile	of	a	TCK	is	“...someone	with	a	
global	perspective	who	is	socially	adaptable	and	intellectually	flexible.	He	or	she	is	quick	
to	think	outside	the	box	and	can	appreciate	and	reconcile	different	points	of	view.”	It	is	
also	stated	that	TCKs	can	think	diversely	and	would	fit	in	with	the	global	challenges.	(Ruth	
Van	Reken,	2008)	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
23	
2.5 Resilience	
Resilience	is	also	a	quality	that	is	developed	during	childhood	and	among	TCKs.	There	
are	many	factors	that	can	influence	a	child’s	resilience,	such	as	the	relationship	with	their	
family,	teachers,	friends,	as	well	as	stress.	According	to	Grotberg	(1995),	resilience	can	
be	defined	as	a	universal	ability	that	enables	individuals,	groups,	or	communities	to	avoid,	
reduce	or	overcome	the	destructive	effects	of	adversity.	Cloninger	(2013)	describes	re-
silience	as	having	the	“strength	to	survive	stressful	situations;	being	able	to	bounce	
back	 from	 stress	which	 contributes	 to	 emotional	well-being”.	 Additionally,	 there	 are	
qualities	in	being	resilient	that	promote	successful	adjustment	and	transformation	de-
spite	risk	and	adversity.		
	
Some	Reasons	why	TCKs	can	come	across	as	more	resilient	than	non-TCKs	are	that	they	
“adapt,	find	niches,	take	risks,	fall	and	pick	themselves	up	again”	(Useem,	1963).	TCKs	
do	not	choose	their	circumstances,	as	all	changes	that	occur	during	their	developmental	
years	are	due	to	their	parents’	decisions.	Therefore,	developing	resilience	can	happen	
naturally	and	TCKs	learn	to	accept	the	challenges	they	face.		
	
From	a	 cross-cultural	 perspective,	 the	perception	of	 resilience	 suggests	 the	ability	 to	
"bounce	back"	 from	difficulties	 (Rayner	&	Montague,	2000).	Morano	&	Cisler,	 (1993)	
state	that	children	with	social	support,	strong	relationships,	and	a	sense	of	inclusion,	are	
more	 resilient.	As	TCKs	build	many	 relationships	during	 their	 years	 abroad	 in	 various	
schools	and	environments,	they	are	exposed	to	developing	the	skill	of	becoming	resilient.	
Gunnestad	(2006)	states	that	culture	is	a	resource	in	resilience	and	developing	skills	in	
children	is	an	effective	way	of	improving	their	self-image.	
	
Grotberg's	Model	 of	 Resilience	 (1995)	 is	made	 up	 of	 three	 categories	 which	 are,	 (‘I	
HAVE’),	(‘I	AM’),	and	(‘I	CAN’).	In	the	table	below	these	are	explained	in	more	detail.	The	
following	actions	promote	resilience	and	can	be	carried	out	during	different	stages	of	
childhood	and	their	development.		
	
24	
	
‘I	HAVE’	 ‘I	AM’	 ‘I	CAN’	
Trusting	relationships	 Loveable		 Communicate		
Structure	 and	 rules	 at	
home	
Loving,	 empathic,	 and	 self-
less		
	
Solve	problems		
Role	models		 Proud	of	myself		 Manage	feelings	
Encouragement	 to	 be	 in-
dependent	
	
Independent	and	responsible	 Assess	 the	 temperament	
of	myself	and	others	
	
Access	 to	 health,	 educa-
tion,	welfare,	and	security	
services	
	
Hopeful,	with	faith	and	trust	 Seek	trusting	relationships	
Table	1:	Grotberg's	Model	of	Resilience	(1995)	
	
Resilience	is	relevant	to	TCKS	because	of	their	ability	to	manage	change	and	obstacles	
and	face	new	people	and	environments	quickly	becoming	a	norm.	When	an	individual	is	
living	in	a	new	environment	with	a	different	culture,	it	requires	them	to	adjust	to	unfa-
miliar	settings.	This	can	lead	to	uncertainty	and	stress.	Resilience	is	developed	during	
times	of	adversity.	According	to	Brooks	&	Goldstein	(2004)	resilience	is	when	one	is	deal-
ing	effectively	with	mistakes,	seeing	them	as	“experiences	for	learning	and	growth”.  
	
A	resilient	person	is	someone	who	has	power	over	their	own	experiences,	using	the	abil-
ity	to	reflect	on	challenges	as	a	basis	for	further	development.	Once	skills	are	developed	
during	childhood,	they	tend	to	stay	during	the	adult	years.	Moreover,	when	TCKs	be-
come	open	and	resilient	during	their	years	abroad,	they	carry	the	skills	with	them	into	
their	lives	when	they	are	grown	up.		
	
	
25	
Children	who	are	resilient	tend	to	be	empathetic	and	able	to	understand	the	feelings	of	
others.	They	are	often	good	communicators	who	can	resolve	problems	as	well	as	have	
an	interest	in	education	and	learning	new	things.	They	want	to	reach	their	goals	and	are	
optimistic	about	future	endeavours.	Lastly,	resilient	children	tend	to	have	a	stable	rela-
tionship	with	one	or	more	adults (Barankin	&	Khanlou,	2007).	
	
2.6 Performance		
Performance	is	defined	as	“the	act	of	doing	something”	or	“how	well	an	activity	or	job	
is	done”	(Cambridge	University	Press,	n.d).	Previous	research	suggests	that	CEOs	with	
international	experience	perform	better	 in	multinational	organizations,	particularly	 in	
highly	internationalized	organizations	(Daily	et	al.,	2000;	Carpenter	et	al.,	2001).		
	
Positive	outcomes	that	TCKs	have	when	they	are	an	adult	is	an	increase	in	their	perfor-
mance	level	either	professionally	or	generally.	Their	international	experience	and	expo-
sure	to	multiple	cultures	in	childhood	create	a	cross-cultural	competence	in	them	that	
leads	to	their	success	if	they	follow	an	expatriate’s	path	as	an	adult.	(Selmer	&	Lam,	2004;	
Caligiuri	et	al.,	2009).	
	
According	 to	Biemann	&	Braakmann	 (2013),	multicultural	experiences	 influence	posi-
tively	individual	performance.	Those	who	have	worked	abroad	have	resulted	in	having	
higher	salaries	than	those	who	have	not.	Although,	these	individuals	are	adults	working	
abroad,	the	possibilities	for	TCKs	to	work	globally	when	adults	are	likely.	Additionally,	
research	confirms	that	multicultural	experiences	affect	firm	performance.		
	
When	it	comes	to	job	performance,	it	 is	evaluated	depending	on	the	requirements	of	
the	job,	the	firm’s	goals,	mission,	and	beliefs	about	the	behaviours	that	are	most	valued.	
Performance	refers	to	the	knowledge,	skills,	abilities,	and	motivation	towards	the	given	
roles	job	responsibilities	(Sonnentag	et	al.,	2008).	Research	shows	that	job	performance	
is	a	multidimensional	concept	that	consists	of	Task	performance,	meaning	that	all	actions	
26	
and	activities	of	an	employee	must	be	 formally	performed	during	the	work	based	on	
knowledge	and	facts	of	the	principles	relevant	to	the	job	performance.	(Bess,	2001).		
Contextual	performance	refers	to	non-job	aspects	of	the	job,	such	as	relationships	with	
nationals	from	the	host	country	(Kraimer	&	Wayne,	2004),	and	lastly,	Assignment	specific	
performance,	relates	to	a	specific	assignment	(Caligiuri,	1997).		
	
Intercultural	 competencies	are	valued	 in	a	workplace	and	seen	as	an	asset.	Research	
suggests	 that	 the	success	of	global	 leaders’	actions	was	affected	by	experiences	with	
strong	 interactions	 in	 cross-cultural	 leadership	development.	Additionally,	 they	 found	
that	intercultural	experiences	impacted	positively	one’s	professional	or	personal	life	by	
being	more	flexible	and	tolerant	of	ambiguity.	 (Caligiuri	&	Tarique,	2009,	2012,	2016)	
Research	shows	that	individuals	with	higher	Cultural	Intelligence	(CQ)	are	likely	to	per-
form	their	 job	more	successfully	as	they	are	more	capable	of	adjusting	themselves	to	
new	cultural	situations	(Tsai	and	Lawrence,	2011;	Ramalu	et	al.,	2012).	
	
Research	confirms	that	diversity	increases	innovation,	fosters	higher	quality	decisions,	
and	boosts	economic	growth.	This	lets	multicultural	groups	react	effectively	to	dynamic	
contexts	and	unexpected	challenges	(Page,	2007).	Another	outcome	of	performance	is	
that	multiculturalism	helps	individuals	present	greater	work	engagement	(Plaut	et	al.,	
2009)	and	accomplish	higher	academic	results	(Walton	&	Cohen,	2011).	
	
Lam	and	Selmer	(2004)	mention	that	adult	TCKs	can	offer	skills	in	a	workplace	that	other	
employees	may	not	be	able	to.	When	it	comes	to	an	expatriate	career,	a	company	tends	
to	offer	cross-cultural	training	and	assists	the	employee	for	 life	overseas,	and	ensures	
cultural	awareness.	However,	 it	 is	 challenging	 to	know	 if	 the	 training	and	 lessons	are	
fulfilled	to	the	standards	in	practice.	This	would	not	be	an	obstacle	for	a	TCK,	as	they	
have	the	experience	of	adapting	quickly	to	new	cultures.	 If	a	firm	hires	a	former	TCK,	
companies	 and	 international	 offices	 would	 benefit	 from	 their	 experiences	 and	 skills	
brought	to	the	team	and	this	will	enhance	firm	performance.	This	is	also	a	way	to	de-
crease	a	firm’s	expenses	when	cross-cultural	training	is	not	necessary.		
27	
Lam	and	Selmer	(2004)	state	that	“former	TCKs	may	be	close	to	the	ideal	business	expat-
riates”	because	of	their	experience	in	other	countries	before	becoming	an	adult.	Lastly,	
performance	 is	 relevant	 to	TCKs	because	 it	 is	developed	through	cultural	 interactions	
(Glăveanu,	2010).	
	
Students	with	diversity	in	their	education	have	an	influence	on	their	performance	(“Ben-
efits	of	Diversity	in	Schools”,n.d.).	Additionally,	the	performance	of	students	who	attend	
racially	integrated	schools	is	significantly	higher	than	those	students	from	racially	segre-
gated	schools	(Massey	&	Fischer,	2006).		
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
28	
2.7 Propositions	
From	the	literature	review	and	theories	presented,	it	can	be	assumed	that	due	to	a	mul-
ticultural	upbringing,	Third	Culture	Kids	are	positively	influenced	by	culture	and	creativity,	
level	of	performance,	intercultural	competence,	openness,	and	resilience.	Thus,	the	fol-
lowing	propositions	are	created.	
	
	
	
	
	Figure	2:	Propositions	
	
 
 
	
Proposition	1
Third	Culture	Kids	are	
more	creative.
Proposition	2
Third	Culture	Kids	perform	
better	due	to	having	a	
multicultural	upbringing.
Proposition	3
Third	Culture	Kids	are	
more	resilient	during	their	
adult	years.
Proposition	4
Third	Culture	Kids	are	
more	open	and	accepting	
because	of	their	
experiences.
Proposition	5
Third	Culture	Kids	have	a	
higher	level	of	
intercultural	competence.
29	
3 Methodology		
The	following	chapter	will	focus	on	the	research	philosophy,	approach,	and	strategy,	and	
the	method	chosen	followed	by	the	data	collection,	data	analysis,	and	lastly	on	the	reli-
ability	and	validity	of	the	study.		
	
There	are	different	research	methods	and	the	two	most	common	ones	are	qualitative	
and	 quantitative	methods.	 A	 qualitative	 research	method	 consists	 of	 collecting	 data	
from	 respondents	 built	 on	 their	 personal	 experiences	 and	 outlooks.	 A	 quantitative	
research	method	can	be	used	when	there	is	prior	data	on	the	research	topic	which	can	
be	 measured.	 Generally,	 qualitative	 research	 aims	 to	 describe	 data	 using	 words,	
whereas	 quantitative	 research	 measures	 data	 numerically	 and	 cause-and-effect	
relationships	of	different	aspects	in	a	phenomenon.	(Kumar,	2011)	
	
3.1 Research	philosophy	
When	conducting	research,	there	are	choices	and	approaches	needed	to	be	selected.	
Saunders	et	al.,	(2007)	created	a	research	onion	that	has	of	six	layers.	The	first	layer	is	
about	the	research	philosophy.	Then	it	focuses	on	the	different	research	approaches,	
research	strategy,	choices,	time	horizon,	and	lastly	techniques	and	procedures.		
	
Research	philosophy	is	important	to	have	in	mind	when	selecting	a	method.	According	
to	Saunders	et	al.,	 (2007),	research	philosophy	is	defined	as	a	term	associated	to	the	
development	 and	 nature	 of	 knowledge.	 The	 three	 types	 of	 research	 philosophy	 are	
epistemology,	 ontology,	 and	 axiology.	 Epistemology	 is	 based	 on	 assumptions	 and	
human	knowledge.	Ontology	is	based	on	the	realities	encountered	and	lastly,	axiology	
is	based	on	one’s	beliefs	that	impact	the	research	method.	Each	view	also	has	different	
philosophies	 attached	 to	 it.	 These	 are	 positivism,	 interpretivism,	 realism,	 and	
pragmatism.	 Positivism	 is	 fact-based	 and	 generally	 used	 in	 quantitative	 research.	
Realism	can	be	used	in	qualitative	and	quantitative	research	and	focuses	on	a	scientific	
approach.	Pragmatism	is	based	on	multiple	methods	and	finding	practical	solutions	to	a	
30	
problem.		In	this	research,	the	selected	philosophy	is	interpretivism,	which	focuses	on	
one’s	 thoughts	 and	 views	 and	 the	 influences	 of	 social	 and	 cultural	 factors.	 The	
knowledge	is	based	on	one’s	interpretations.	In	this	philosophy,	the	researcher	is	also	
part	of	the	study.	(Saunders	et	al.,	2007)	Interpretive	philosophy	is	related	to	qualitative	
research	 since	 the	 researcher	 needs	 to	 understand	 the	 subjective	 and	 socially	
constructive	 meaning	 of	 the	 phenomenon	 studied.	 The	 reason	 for	 selecting	
interpretivism	 for	 this	 study	 is	 because	 the	 experience,	 views,	 and	 opinions	 of	 the	
participants	interviewed	will	help	answer	the	research	question.		
	
3.2 Research	approach	and	strategy	
The	research	approaches	are	deductive	and	inductive.	In	a	deductive	approach,	a	theory	
and	 hypotheses	 are	 developed	 with	 a	 research	 strategy	 where	 the	 hypotheses	 are	
tested.	In	this	study,	the	approach	is	inductive,	which	refers	to	collecting	data	commonly	
in	a	qualitative	way	and	analysing	the	data	to	form	a	theory.	Observations	are	included	
in	this	approach.	(Saunders	et	al.,	2007)	
	
The	 research	strategy	 in	 this	 study	 is	exploratory.	Saunders	et	al.,	 (2007)	explain	 the	
exploratory	study	as	a	valuable	means	to	ask	open	questions	to	achieve	insights	on	an	
area	of	 interest	and	to	understand	an	issue	or	problem.	An	advantage	of	exploratory	
research	is	that	it	is	flexible	and	adaptable	to	change.	Additionally,	exploratory	research	
can	have	a	broad	focus	but	then	become	narrower	as	the	research	progresses.	As	this	
research	is	exploratory,	semi-structured	interviews	are	a	useful	method	to	gain	a	deep	
insight	into	the	explanations	and	decisions	the	interviewees	have,	as	well	as	to	compre-
hend	the	reasons	for	their	shared	opinions.	Semi-structured	interviews	provide	the	in-
terviewer	with	the	opportunity	to	explore	further	with	open-ended	questions.	
	
Since	the	goal	of	the	study	is	to	understand	TCKs	and	their	benefits	of	growing	up	global,	
this	research	paper	will	be	carried	out	as	qualitative	research,	with	semi-structured	face-
to-face	interviews.	Semi-structured	interviews	will	allow	flexibility	and	the	responses	of	
31	
every	individual	give	a	deep	insight	into	their	experiences	of	growing	up	globally	in	mul-
tiple	cultures.		
	
3.3 Data	collection	and	analysis	
The	data	collection	method	was	carried	out	as	face-to-face	semi-structured	interviews	
with	adult	TCKs	during	August	2021.	The	length	of	the	interviews	was	from	20	minutes	
to	60	minutes.	The	participants	selected	for	the	interviews	were	some	of	the	author’s	
friends	and	others	were	contacts	found	through	a	friend.	As	the	author	has	an	interna-
tional	background,	finding	and	recruiting	participants	for	the	interview	happened	natu-
rally	without	 complications.	 The	 interviewees	were	approached	either	 through	 social	
media	or	email	to	schedule	an	interview.	The	criteria	for	the	selection	of	these	interview-
ees	were	that	they	had	to	be	exposed	by	three	different	cultures	from	their	childhood,	
either	by	having	parents	from	two	different	countries	and	having	been	raised	in	a	differ-
ent	country	or	by	living	in	several	countries	that	were	different	to	the	ethnicity	of	their	
parents.		
	
Six	individuals,	five	female	and	one	male	who’s	background	confirmed	them	being	adult	
TCKs	 were	 interviewed	 to	 get	 their	 insight	 on	 how	 cross-cultural	 experiences	 have	
influenced	on	them	while	growing	up	as	well	as	the	benefits	of	their	global	background.	
These	individuals	were	all	located	in	different	parts	of	the	world.	The	interview	questions	
were	prepared	in	advance,	but	not	sent	to	the	interviewees	as	the	discussion	is	aimed	
to	be	natural.	When	some	close-ended	questions	were	not	elaborated,	the	author	asked	
the	interviewees	to	explain	in	more	depth.	Some	preferred	to	share	ideas	and	perspec-
tives	 in	more	detail	whilst	others	kept	answers	shorter.	The	interviews	were	recorded	
with	the	permission	of	the	interviewees	and	then	transcribed	exactly	into	text	for	the	
data	analysis.	
	
	
	
32	
The	author	sorted	the	collected	data	into	a	table	to	simplify	general	information	about	
the	interviewees.	From	the	table	below,	the	background	of	the	participants	confirm	that	
they	are	TCKs.	After	this,	the	author	categorized	similar	themes	and	observations	and	
included	interviewees’	quotes	under	each	theme.			
	
	
Table	2:	Participants	of	the	research		
	
	
	
	
	
Interviewees	 1	 2	 3	 4	 5	 6	
Age	 28	 29	 31	 30	 25	 27	
Birth	country	 Botswana	 Scotland	 USA	 South	Africa	 Canada	 USA	
Passport	
country	
Botswana	 British,	Cana-
dian	
USA	 Australia,	
South	Africa	
Canada	 USA	
Parents	eth-
nicity	
Iranian	 Iranian	&	Scot-
tish	
Syrian	 South	Afri-
can	&	Indian	
Iranian	 Iranian	
Current	career	 Civil	engi-
neer	
Principal	in	
Global	Tech-
nology	and	
Services	(Con-
sulting)	
Architect	 Lawyer	 Medical	
gradu-
ate	
Archi-
tectural	
intern	
Places	lived	in	
parental	care	
Bot-
swana,	
Australia	
Taiwan,	Singa-
pore,	Canada	
USA,	Abu	
Dhabi	
South	Africa,	
Australia	
Canada,	
Taiwan	
USA,	
Abu	
Dhabi	
Languages	
spoken	
English,	
Farsi	
English,	Farsi	 Arabic,	
English		
English,	Zulu	 Farsi,	
English,	
Manda-
rin	
Farsi,	
Arabic,	
English	
33	
3.4 Limitations,	reliability	and	validity		
The	research	aims	to	provide	new	perspectives	and	approaches	 to	existing	 literature,	
however,	there	are	limitations	in	this	research.		The	main	limitation	is	research	bias	since	
the	author	is	a	Third	Culture	Kid	and	she	can	use	her	background	and	personal	views.	
Another	limitation	is	that	only	six	individuals	were	interviewed	therefore	results	cannot	
be	generalized.	Additionally,	in	interviews,	individuals	understood	questions	and	terms	
differently,	which	can	lead	to	scattered	or	unclear	answers.		
	
The	reliability	and	validity	of	this	research	have	been	evaluated	to	understand	the	quality	
of	the	research.		Reliability	refers	to	“the	extent	to	which	your	data	collection	techniques	
or	analysis	procedures	will	yield	consistent	findings”	(Saunders	et	al.,	2007,	p.149).	Saun-
ders	et	al.	(2007)	state	that	there	are	four	dangers	related	to	the	reliability	of	research	
which	is	“subject	or	participant	error,	subject	or	participant	bias,	observer	error,	and	ob-
server	bias”.	Furthermore,	to	ensure	reliability	in	research	it	is	essential	to	have	trust-
worthiness	and	quality	 (Golafshani,	2003).	 Interviews	were	carried	out	through	Zoom	
and	interviewees’	names	were	not	published,	so	participants	could	freely	express	their	
opinions.		
	
The	validity	of	research	“is	concerned	with	whether	the	findings	are	really	about	what	
they	appear	to	be	about”	(Saunders	et	al.,	2007,	p.150).	The	threats	to	validity	are	“his-
tory,	testing,	instrumentation,	mortality,	maturation,	and	ambiguity	about	causal	direc-
tion”	(Saunders	et	al.,	2007).	As	only	six	interviews	were	conducted,	this	could	impact	
the	validity	of	the	results.	However,	the	theory	used	in	this	research	is	adequate	and	in-
depth.	Validity	was	also	ensured	by	presenting	the	topic	of	this	research	to	the	 inter-
viewees	beforehand	as	well	as	using	clear	questions	during	the	interview.	Additionally,	
evidence	of	the	findings	is	included	in	this	study.		
	
	
	
	
34	
4 Findings	
The	following	chapter	will	provide	the	results	and	analysis	of	the	semi-structured	inter-
views.	The	background	of	the	participants	is	presented	in	a	table	in	chapter	three.	The	
findings	will	be	based	on	the	research	question	and	objectives	are	presented	in	themes	
to	give	a	clearer	understanding	of	the	responses	given	by	the	participants.	Additionally,	
the	propositions	made	in	chapter	two	will	be	briefly	overviewed.	Although	the	partici-
pants	are	TCKs	based	on	their	background	and	upbringing,	the	term	was	unfamiliar	to	
some.	For	this	reason,	the	concept	of	Third	Culture	Kid	was	explained	at	the	beginning	
of	each	interview	to	ensure	clarity.	One	similarity	between	all	participants	was	that	their	
parent’s	ethnicity	was	different	from	the	places	that	they	had	spent	their	childhood.	The	
aim	achieved	was	to	find	individuals	who	have	been	exposed	to	three	cultures	or	more	
from	childhood.	The	next	parts	will	include	quotes	from	the	interviewees	and	an	analysis	
of	their	responses.	
	
The	findings	are	divided	into	seven	themes	based	on	the	responses	from	the	interview-
ees.		
• Benefits	and	advantages	of	being	a	TCK	
• Developed	intercultural	competence	
• Improved	creativity		
• Developed	openness		
• Becoming	resilient	
• Professional	performance	
• Positive	impacts		
	
	
	
	
	
	
35	
4.1 Benefits	and	advantages	of	being	a	TCK		
Some	benefits	and	advantages	of	being	a	TCK	include	ability	to	be	adaptive,	interact	eas-
ily	with	different	cultures,	be	more	open-minded,	empathetic,	bilingual	and	have	high	
communication	skills	("The	benefits	of	being	a	third	culture	kid",	n.d.).	In	an	article	by	
Poornima	 (2018),	other	benefits	of	being	a	TCK	are	 feeling	at	home	anywhere	 in	 the	
world	and	not	experiencing	culture	shock.	Furthermore,	research	shows	that	TCKs	are	
four	times	more	likely	to	earn	a	bachelor’s	degree	than	non-TCKs	as	well	as	40%	of	TCKs	
earn	advanced	degrees	compared	with	5%	of	non-TCKs	(Useem	&	Cottrell,	1999).	This	
shows	that	TCKs	find	education	and	developing	academically	important.		
	
From	 the	 interviews,	 participants	 revealed	 that	 there	 are	 plenty	 of	 benefits	 and	 ad-
vantages	of	being	a	TCK	and	how	the	experience	has	brought	opportunities,	perspective,	
and	skills	during	their	adult	years.	Responses	were	similar	between	the	participants	and	
concepts	used	in	the	literature	review	such	as	openness	and	resilience	were	mentioned	
before	asking	about	them	separately	during	the	interview.		
	
Friendships	and	wider	networks	around	the	world	were	another	benefit	mentioned	that	
has	had	an	influence	during	adult	life.	The	ability	to	handle	emotions	from	a	young	age	
was	also	a	skill	that	was	developed.	TCKs	manage	to	show	social	patterns	of	being	less	
emotional,	keeping	distance	in	social	settings,	and	moving	quickly	without	creating	inti-
macy	(Pollock	&	Van	Reken,	2001,	Stultz,2002).	
	
“I	now	have	friends	that	live	all	over	the	world,	which	I	think	is	such	a	benefit.	Whenever	
we	go	traveling	there’s	people	that	I	know	in	different	countries.	I	also	think	you	have	
much	more	of	an	appreciation	to	other	cultures.	I	think	also	you	are	probably	more	resil-
ient	as	an	 individual	because	at	a	young	age	you	get	used	 to	your	 friends	moving	 to	
different	countries	and	you	do	become	more	resilient	and	less	emotional,	you	just	get	so	
used	to	it.	“	–	Interviewee	2		
	
36	
“It	gives	you	a	lot	of	perspective	on	the	world.	It	definitely	adds	some	flavour	to	life.	I	am	
spiritually	enlightened	and	financially	I’m	ok	and	most	importantly	my	attitude	is	posi-
tive.”	–	Interviewee	1	
	
Language	skills	were	a	significant	benefit	for	some	of	the	participants.	They	mentioned	
that	they	can	translate	as	well	as	interact	with	more	people	in	several	languages.	This	
has	led	to	succeeding	in	their	career	now	as	an	adult	and	having	strong	communication	
skills.	TCKs	have	a	bigger	view	of	the	world	since	they	have	been	exposed	to	more	coun-
tries	than	most	individuals.	Additionally,	they	have	a	perception	of	international	mat-
ters,	are	communicative	and	are	generally	self-sufficient,	disciplined,	independent,	and	
can	speak	many	languages	(Perkins,	n.d.).	
	
“I’ve	had	opportunities	to	be	helpful.	If	I	need	to	translate	across	languages	or	communi-
cate,	I	could	use	my	language	skills.	I’ve	also	been	able	to	understand	people	better	and	
communicate.”	–	Interviewee	6	
	
“You	get	exposed	to	more	cultures	and	you	are	more	open	minded.	 I	get	to	get	more	
friends	because	you	can	speak	more	languages	so	you	can	talk	to	more	people.	It	also	
helped	me	get	my	current	work	place.”	–	Interviewee	3	
	
Another	important	benefit	mentioned	was	gratitude	and	determination.	When	one	is	
exposed	to	many	cultures	from	a	young	age	and	sees	the	world	from	different	view-
points,	it	helps	them	understand	cultures	and	build	relationships	as	well	as	accomplish	
their	goals.	
	
“I	would	say	my	social	and	cultural	literacy	is	really	strong.	I’ve	had	a	good	perspective	
and	understanding	of	gratitude.	I	don’t	take	little	things	for	granted.	My	level	of	deter-
mination	to	succeed	and	 it	has	helped	me	create	connections	with	a	 lot	of	people.”	–	
Interviewee	4	
37	
The	ability	to	have	the	flexibility	and	not	be	ignorant	during	adulthood	and	thoughts	on	
how	one	can	teach	their	 future	children	these	skills	were	benefits	mentioned	by	one	
participant.	These	are	skills	that	can	help	unite	individuals	from	different	cultures	and	
backgrounds.		
	
“So	many	benefits.	It	helped	me	gain	a	more	holistic	view	of	reality	of	and	the	world,	and	
see	the	differences	in	cultures	and	elements	that	are	the	same	and	bring	us	together.	
The	opportunities	are	really	endless,	the	world	is	your	oyster.	You	have	the	flexibility	of	
moving	anywhere.	You	can	offer	raising	your	children	this	way,	not	being	ignorant.”	–	
Interviewee	5		
	
4.2 Developed	intercultural	competence	
Intercultural	competence	was	a	term	that	had	to	be	explained	before	the	interviewees	
could	respond	to	the	question.	Once	they	understood	the	definition,	they	stated	that	it	
was	a	skill	that	they	considered	helpful	and	assists	them	to	be	open,	accepting,	and	un-
derstanding	towards	different	cultures.	This	skill	has	been	developed	through	their	TCK	
experiences	according	to	the	interviewees’	responses.		
	
Based	on	the	Developmental	Model	of	Intercultural	Sensitivity	(DMIS)	model,	the	inter-
viewees	of	this	research	have	assimilated	the	ethnorelative	stages,	which	are	acceptance,	
adaptation,	 and	 integration	 due	 to	 their	multicultural	 experiences	 and	 backgrounds.	
Those	without	the	experience	or	background	of	a	TCK	may	be	more	ethnocentric,	which	
includes	denial,	defense,	and	minimization	against	cultural	differences.	From	research	
made	 by	 Choi	 and	 Luke	 (2011),	 TCKs	 were	 ethnorelativists,	 showed	 acceptance	 and	
awareness	to	diverse	values	and	worldviews,	empathized	with	people	who	were	cultur-
ally	different,	as	well	as	demonstrated	flexibility	 in	diverse	cultural	settings	with	their	
intercultural	communication	skills.	The	participants	interviewed	understand	and	accept	
different	cultures	better	because	of	their	international	upbringing.	Additionally,	the	Cul-
tural	Intelligence	(CQ)	model,	which	includes	metacognitive,	cognitive,	motivational,	and	
behavioural	cultural	intelligence	are	visible	in	the	responses	of	interviewees.		
38	
As	one	of	the	participants	who	lived	in	Asia	during	her	childhood,	she	is	extremely	famil-
iar	with	the	culture	and	understands	what	is	acceptable	and	what	is	considered	offensive.	
The	benefits	of	having	lived	in	Asia	are	visible	during	her	current	position	in	her	career.		
	
“Yes,	Definitely.	Even	little	things,	 like	we	have	clients	based	in	Japan	and	I	know	that	
hierarchy	is	really	important	there	and	face	is	important	there	but	my	peers	don’t	know	
that.”	–	Interviewee	2	
	
“When	you	are	from	different	backgrounds	and	different	cultures	you	develop	a	sense	of	
understanding.	You	have	to	adapt.	You	have	to	be	accepting	and	mindful	of	other	cul-
tures.”	–	Interviewee	1	
	
When	one	has	intercultural	competence,	they	can	relate	to	cultures,	be	accepting,	open,	
and	have	the	knowledge	of	different	 traditions	and	people’s	outlooks.	This	 is	needed	
especially	if	one’s	career	is	global	or	they	work	in	an	international	team	or	organization.	
The	literature	on	intercultural	competence	discussed	earlier	is	closely	applied	to	the	re-
sponses	of	participants	on	having	developed	the	skill	of	being	interculturally	competent.		
	
Selmer	and	Lam	(2003)	indicated	that	TCKs	were	more	open	than	the	non-TCKs	when	it	
comes	to	internationally	relocating,	following	an	international	career,	traveling,	and	hav-
ing	an	interest	in	different	languages.	TCK’s	international	focus	was	more	relevant	to	in-
tercultural	competencies.	This	was	also	confirmed	by	interviewees.		
	
“For	sure,	accepting	towards	different	cultures.	Open	to	cultures,	more	accepting,	their	
traditions	and	views.	I	can	relate	to	many	cultures.”	–	Interviewee	6	
	
“I	really	enjoy	learning	about	different	cultures.	I	would	say	all	cultures	have	some	kind	
of	similarities.”	–	Interviewee	4	
	
39	
Even	though	the	skill	of	being	interculturally	competent	is	gained	from	being	a	TCK,	it	is	
yet	a	skill	that	should	be	developed	also	during	adult	years.	One	of	the	participants	at-
tended	international	schools	where	people	were	from	different	cultures.	This	leads	to	
having	the	desire	to	comprehend	others.		
	
“Yes.	It’s	a	skill	everyone	needs	to	continue	to	work	on.	I	went	to	an	international	school	
where	I	had	many	identities,	so	it	was	easier	to	relate	to	people	from	different	cultures.	
Also,	just	wanting	to	understand	more	about	other	people.”	–	Interviewee	5		
	
4.3 Improved	creativity		
When	it	came	to	creativity,	participants	considered	themselves	creative	due	to	their	mul-
ticultural	upbringing	and	experiences.	Some	mentioned	working	in	a	creative	field,	which	
also	shows	that	being	a	TCK	may	enhance	creativity.		
	
Creativity	is	a	wide	concept	and	can	be	understood	in	many	ways.	One	participant	men-
tioned	being	creative	with	problem-solving	and	innovative	with	ideas.	This	is	a	skill	that	
is	appreciated	by	many	employers	and	is	considered	beneficial	(Craig,	2017).	When	em-
ployees	 and	 students	 from	different	 cultural	 backgrounds	 are	brought	 into	 the	 same	
team,	it	leads	to	a	multicultural	experience	that	can	make	individuals	effortlessly	become	
better	at	creative	problem	solving	(Leung	et	al.,2008).	
	
“I	wouldn’t	say	I	am	a	creative	person	but	I	think	where	it	has	helped	me	is	in	problem	
solving	and	thinking	about	situations	in	different	perspectives	whether	that	be	from	dif-
ferent	culture	or	thinking	about	new	ideas	and	how	to	fix	something.”	–	Interviewee	2	
	
“Absolutely,	a	lot	of	ways.	It	could	start	with	just	having	a	simple	conversation.	You	have	
to	approach	it	from	a	creative	angle	because	this	person	is	used	to	something	different	
than	you	are.	My	mind	has	been	exposed	to	different	places	so	it	inspires	you	to	be	more	
creative	just	from	observations.”	–	Interviewee	1	
	
40	
Multicultural	experiences	increase	creativity	in	many	ways.	It	allows	people	to	become	
free	from	their	preferences	(Chiu	&	Leung,	2007).	According	to	Baumgartner	(2010),	“di-
versity	is	the	key	to	creativity”	and	multicultural	teams	produce	more	creative	results	
than	teams	that	are	from	the	same	culture.	Both	Interviewees	3	and	6	work	in	the	archi-
tectural	 field	and	consider	their	experiences	of	being	a	TCK	to	 improve	their	creative	
skills.	Another	participant	mentioned	having	a	creative	hobby.	These	are	all	examples	of	
how	a	multicultural	upbringing	enhances	creativity	during	adult	years.			
	
“Yes,	definitely.	 I’m	more	open	to	other	cultures	and	 I	am	an	artist	 so	 I’m	creative	 in	
nature.	I’m	able	to	integrate	different	cultures	into	my	life.	I	don’t	feel	like	I’m	from	one	
place,	I	feel	like	I’m	from	everywhere.”	–	Interviewee	6	
	
“Definitely,	I	work	now	in	a	creative	industry.”	–	Interviewee	3	
	
“Yes,	I	write	poetry	as	a	hobby.	I	think	I	do	have	a	really	strong	influence	because	I’ve	
grown	up	overseas,	that	awareness	of	the	human	experience.”	–	Interviewee	4	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
41	
4.4 Developed	openness	
Most	participants	considered	that	their	experience	as	a	TCK	has	developed	openness.	
Additionally,	 skills	 such	 as,	 ability	 to	 be	 accepting,	 inclusive	 and	 understanding	were	
mentioned.	The	skill	of	openness	for	some	participants	meant	having	the	ability	to	have	
empathy	and	learning	to	enjoy	other	cultures.	Rockson	(2015)	also	confirms	that	TCKs	
are	more	open-minded	with	different	cultures.	
	
Embracing	 differences	 in	 cultures	 demands	 strength	 of	 character,	 knowledge	 about	
openness	to	the	other	and	action	that	is	driven	by	respect	and	interest	in	those	who	are	
culturally	different.	Individuals	who	enjoy	learning	about	the	worldview	of	culturally	di-
verse	people	tend	to	show	more	openness.	(Fowers	&	Davidov,	2006)	
	
“Being	able	to	empathize	with	people,	regardless	of	gender,	position	in	life,	class,	religion.	
I’m	more	accepting	and	inclusive	because	I	am	from	so	many	places.”	–	Interviewee	6	
	
According	to	McAllister	and	Irvine	(2002)	empathy	can	possibly	promote	openness,	at-
tentiveness,	as	well	as	positive	relationships.		
	
“I	have	a	really	strong	sense	of	empathy	from	my	upbringing.	I	can	talk	to	different	cul-
tures,	I	enjoy	celebrating	cultural	festivals	and	learning	about	them,	which	comes	from	
my	experience.”	–	Interviewee	4		
	
Leaving	comfort	zones	is	a	skill	most	TCKs	learn	because	of	moving	to	different	places	
with	different	cultures	from	a	young	age.	They	learned	to	pursue	new	experiences	with	
an	inclusive	attitude.	When	one	is	comfortable	with	people	from	different	cultures,	 it	
does	not	suggest	abandonment	of	one’s	background.	It	is	the	capability	to	value	one’s	
own	culture	as	well	as	be	comfortable	with	those	who	do	not	share	the	same	opinions	
(Fowers	&	Davidov,	2006).	
	
42	
“Definitely,	you	learn	the	good	qualities	of	cultures	and	you	have	an	understanding	why	
people	behave	in	a	certain	way.	You	get	this	attitude	of	wanting	to	be	inclusive,	leaving	
your	comfort	zone	and	expanding	your	horizons.”	–	Interviewee	5		
	
From	a	study	by	Leung	et	al.	(2008),	it	was	found	that	to	achieve	a	creative	benefit	from	
multicultural	experiences,	it	is	significant	for	individuals	to	not	only	be	exposed	to	differ-
ent	cultures	but	to	also	make	specific	rational	and	behavioural	adjustments	as	well	as	be	
open	and	welcoming	to	new	experiences.	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
43	
4.5 Becoming	resilient	
Gunnestad	(2006)	states	that	some	children	who	grow	up	with	many	risk	factors	may	not	
do	well	as	adults,	while	others	could	develop	and	live	comfortably	despite	all	the	risks	
they	were	exposed	to	as	children.	Additionally,	Gunnestad	(2006)	claimed	that	“those	
who	master	 the	 rules	and	norms	of	 their	new	culture	without	abandoning	 their	own	
language,	values	and	social	support	seem	more	resilient	than	those	who	just	keep	their	
own	culture	and	cannot	adjust	to	their	new	culture	or	those	who	become	highly	accul-
turated”.	Resilience	is	essential	to	children’s	and	adolescents'	well-being	because	with	
resilience	one	is	more	skilled	to	overcome	hardships	and	difficult	life	situations	as	well	
as	growth-related	challenges	(Clauss-Ehlers	&	Lopez	Levi,	2002).	
	
Most	participants	considered	being	resilient	because	of	their	background	of	being	a	TCK.	
Some	mentioned	the	skill	being	beneficial	in	the	working	place	and	having	the	ability	to	
move	around	the	world	as	an	adult	without	 it	 feeling	overwhelming.	Handling	uncer-
tainty	indicates	the	ability	to	appreciate	uncertainty	and	the	complexity	of	multicultural	
surroundings	as	a	prospect	for	personal	development	(de	Waal	et	al.,	2020).		
	
“I	think	it’s	the	biggest	benefit,	is	resiliency.	You	realise	the	value	that	now	that	I	have	
been	working.	I	have	been	able	to	progress	really	quickly	throughtout	my	career	and	get	
promoted	but	I	think	its	because	I	am	so	reslient	and	it	stems	from	the	environment	I	
have	grown	up	in	and	being	in	uncertain	places	and	moving	to	new	cultures.	Third	Culture	
Kids	have	moreso	 than	anymore,	hands	down	 is	 the	 trait	of	 resliency.	And	you	 really	
benefit	from	when	you	are	an	adult	and	working.”	–	Interviewee	1	
	
“Yes	very	much	so.	When	you	are	exposed	to	different	cultures,	you	always	need	time	to	
adapt	and	adjust	so	you	then	become	more	patient	especially	with	yourself.”	–	 Inter-
viewee	2	
	
44	
For	some,	the	skill	of	resilience	was	not	chosen	but	rather	it	happened	forcibly	from	the	
situations	they	were	put	in	during	childhood.	Moving	around	and	adjusting	to	new	cul-
tures	can	naturally	improve	one’s	resilience. From	childhood,	TCKs	acquire	to	be	resili-
ent	and	adapt	to	new	conditions	because	of	going	to	several	different	schools	(Lijadi	&	
van	Schalkwyk,	2014).	Although	for	most	interviewees	resilience	was	developed	because	
of	the	experiences	from	childhood,	research	suggests	that	for	a	child	to	be	resilient,	the	
family	or	community	must	be	resilient	as	well	(Ungar,	2006).	
	
“Yes,	I	think	there	was	a	lot	of	resilience	that	came	forcibly.	It	wasn’t	voluntary.”	–	Inter-
viewee	4	
	
“Yes.	I	can	be	put	into	different	situations	and	be	ok	with	it.	And	moving	to	a	complete	
new	country	is	not	as	daunting	now	as	an	adult.”	–	Interviewee	5		
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
45	
4.6 Professional	performance	
Performance	felt	like	a	broad	concept	to	some	participants,	however,	it	was	specified	to	
professional	or	personal	performance,	and	that	assisted	with	answering	the	questions	
on	developing	performance.	Responses	were	similar	and	interviewees	felt	that	their	ex-
periences	and	schools	lead	them	to	perform	better	now	as	an	adult.		
	
International	schooling	can	influence	one’s	performance	as	the	schools	were	demanding	
with	high	expectations	from	students.	This	led	to	one	of	the	participants	having	the	de-
sire	to	do	well	in	the	working	environment.	The	upbringing	of	a	TCK	can	have	a	strong	
impact	on	how	they	succeed	in	their	careers	as	adults	and	consider	their	childhood	and	
schooling	experience	 the	 reasons	 for	 the	benefits	 of	 high	performance.	Moreover,	 a	
study	by	Buriel	et	al.	(1998),	shows	that	biculturalism	contributed	positively	to	academic	
performance.	
	
“I	think	it	has	really	benefited	my	performance	but	it’s	a	result	of	living	quite	a	privileged	
Third	Culture	life.	Going	to	really	good	schools	where	the	bar	is	very	high	and	having	lots	
of	opportunities.	The	schools	that	I	went	to	demanded	great	results	essentially	so	I	now	
see	that	more	so	being	working	in	a	professionally	career	for	five	years,	my	expectations	
and	how	I	perform	is	much	higher	than	maybe	some	of	my	peers.	I	do	think	it’s	from	the	
environment	that	we	grew	up	in.”-	Interviewee	2	
	
“Knowing	more	languages	has	been	helpful	and	people	have	been	impressed	with	that.”	
–	Interviewee	3	
	
“You	pick	up	qualities	and	characteristics	from	different	cultures.	For	example,	Taiwan-
ese	students	are	very	disciplined	and	going	to	Europe	to	study	where	people	are	very	free	
and	sitting	in	front	of	a	desk	is	a	struggle,	I	had	the	advantage	to	be	able	to	sit	through	
lectures.”	–	Interviewee	5		
	
46	
4.7 Positive	impact		
TCKs	can	adapt	to	new	situations	quickly	with	high	confidence	as	well	as	develop	strong	
communication	 and	 diplomatic	 skills	 ("Third-Culture	 Kids",	 n.d.).	 A	 guide	 created	 by	
Rockson	(2014)	shows	the	positive	qualities	of	being	a	TCK.	Some	examples	of	the	below	
aspects	are	explained	as	TCKs	are	adventurous	because	of	 their	ability	 to	accomplish	
tasks	that	may	be	difficult	for	others	and	that	they	have	the	potential	to	make	an	influ-
ence.	Additionally,	TCKs	being	rich	culturally	refers	to	the	wealth	of	the	multicultural	
experiences	which	are	more	worthy	than	money.	Another	example	is	the	aspect	of	being	
well-rounded.	 This	 refers	 to	 TCKs	 being	 able	 to	multitask	 and	be	 an	 expert	 of	many	
things	(Rockson,	2014).	These	are	all	positive	impacts	of	being	a	TCK	with	diverse	cultural	
experiences.		
	
Adventurous	 Balanced	 Curious	
Diplomatic	 Entrepreneurial		 Friendly	and	free	
Gracious	 Helpful	 Impressionable	
Joyous	 Leader	 Mysterious	
Nomadic	 Open-minded	 Rich	culturally	
Passionate	 Self-assured	 Tactful	
Vigilant	 Well-rounded	 Zealous	
	
Table	3:	Positive	qualities	of	being	a	TCK	by	Tayo	Rockson.	
	
At	the	end	of	each	interview,	participants	were	given	the	opportunity	to	add	anything	
else	relevant	to	the	above-mentioned	benefits	and	the	positive	impacts	related	to	being	
a	TCK.	Overall,	most	participants	appreciate	 their	diverse	background	and	upbringing	
and	the	opportunities	it	has	lead	them	to.		
	
	
47	
“I’m	now	very	passionate	about	mentoring	others	and	that’s	because	of	my	appreciation	
to	different	cultures.	I’m	a	very	big	advocate	of	people	taking	new	opportunities	and	I	try	
to	support	that	as	much	as	I	can.	It	does	stem	from	the	experiences	that	I’ve	had.	I	feel	
like	my	best	memories	and	opportunities	have	come	from	my	upbringing.”	–	Interviewee	
2		
	
The	advantages	of	having	a	TCK	background	were	many.	Examples	mentioned	included	
being	able	to	be	more	accepting,	approachable,	understanding,	appreciative,	and	grate-
ful	for	opportunities.	Another	interesting	comment	made	by	one	of	the	participants	was	
that	in	the	future	there	will	be	fourth	and	fifth	culture	kids	as	the	world	is	becoming	one.	
	
“I’m	more	accepting	and	approachable.	 I	 can	 relate	 to	many	cultures	and	people	can	
relate	to	me	and	I’m	able	to	understand	both	perspectives.	 I’m	more	flexible.	 I	believe	
that	the	world	is	becoming	more	and	more	as	one	world.	The	barriers	and	borders	are	
becoming	physically	more,	but	realising	how	closer	we	are.	Even	though	I’m	a	third	cul-
ture	kid,	very	soon	there	will	be	fourth	and	fifth	culture	kids.	The	important	thing	is	to	
appreciate	the	diversity	of	the	human	family.	So,	accepting	people	for	who	they	are	re-
gardless	of	they	choose	to	live	their	lives.”	–	Interviewee	6	
	
“Everyone	finds	me	intriguing.	I	look	white,	I	don’t	look	Persian	or	Chinese.	Being	able	to	
speak	3	languages,	understand	certain	cultures,	nuances	of	certain	behaviours	and	read	
reality.	I’m	willing	to	interact	and	it’s	a	very	positive	and	great	experience.”	–	Interviewee	
5		
	
“I’m	grateful	for	the	opportunities	I	have.”	–	Interviewee	4		
	
	
	
	
48	
4.8 Summary	of	the	findings		
The	title	of	this	research	states	that	“Third	Culture	Kids	are	citizens	of	everywhere	and	
nowhere”.	This	was	noticeable	from	the	participants	because	of	their	background	of	liv-
ing	in	various	countries.	For	example,	Interviewee	6	mentioned	“I	don’t	feel	like	I’m	from	
one	place,	I	feel	like	I’m	from	everywhere.”	Benefits	of	growing	up	global	were	revealed	
and	these	included	developed	intercultural	competence,	improved	creativity,	developed	
openness,	becoming	resilient,	developing	professional	performance	as	well	as	positive	
influences	 that	have	been	valuable	during	adult	 years.	All	 six	 interviewees	had	many	
similar	responses,	which	showed	the	advantages	and	positive	outcomes	of	being	a	TCK.	
Although	 their	 cultural	background	differed,	 their	 global	upbringing,	experiences	and	
worldviews	were	alike.		
	
49	
5 Discussion	and	conclusion	
The	following	chapter	will	summarise	the	main	results	found	as	well	as	the	relevance	to	
existing	literature.	Firstly,	the	focus	will	be	on	the	research	question	and	objectives	and	
how	they	are	answered.	This	will	be	explained	by	whether	they	were	confirmed	or	con-
tradicted.	The	chapter	will	end	with	a	conclusion.			
	
The	results	of	the	interviews	were	as	predicted	and	are	in	correlation	with	the	literature	
review.	The	responses	of	the	participants	on	the	benefits	of	growing	up	globally	as	Third	
Culture	Kids	were	positive	and	many	benefits	were	revealed.	Additionally,	the	answers	
from	the	interviewees	extended	what	the	literature	stated.		
	
The	first	objective	of	this	research	was	to	identify	TCKs	qualities	that	are	increased	from	
a	global	upbringing	and	cross-cultural	interactions.	Diverse	language	skills	were	revealed	
from	the	interviews	and	Smith	(1996)	also	suggests	in	her	research	that	many	TCKs	can	
use	two	or	more	languages	to	communicate.	Resilience	was	one	of	the	themes	relevant	
to	TCKs.	Simonsen	(2007)	discusses	the	term	intercultural	resilience	and	mentions	that	
it	is	related	to	being	forced	to	adapt	to	changes	and	grow	from	them.	One	interviewee	
mentioned	that	the	skill	of	resilience	was	not	voluntary	but	developed	forcibly.	This	also	
is	confirmed	through	interviews	and	literature.		
	
Intercultural	 competence	 was	 also	 a	 skill	 that	 was	 increased	 because	 of	 the	 global	
upbringing	of	the	interviewees.	According	to	a	recent	study	by	de	Waal	et	al.,	(2020),	the	
results	 indicated	that	“early	cross-cultural	 life	experiences	help	 individuals	to	develop	
intercultural	competencies	and	positive	diversity	beliefs.	Equipped	with	these	compe-
tencies	and	beliefs,	TCKs	can	add	value	to	organizations	and	society”.	Moreover,	the	lit-
erature	supports	the	results	of	the	interviews	on	intercultural	competency.		
	
The	second	objective	was	to	determine	creativity,	performance,	and	openness-related	
benefits	for	TCKs.	A	high	level	of	professional	performance	was	a	clear	benefit	for	some	
interviewees.		According	to	Smith	(1996),	one	significant	achievement	is	the	careers	of	
50	
TCKs.	She	states	that	“one	of	the	most	notable	characteristics	of	adult	TCKs	is	their	high	
occupational	achievement.	Their	occupational	choices	reflect	a	continued	love	of	learn-
ing,	 interest	 in	helping,	and	desire	for	 independence	and	flexibility”.	This	was	also	re-
vealed	in	the	research	with	the	interviewees.	As	all	participants	are	well	educated,	it	has	
led	 them	to	 the	positions	 they	are	currently	working	 in.	Additionally,	 the	 findings	 re-
vealed	that	they	enjoy	helping	others	in	different	ways.	Moreover,	their	level	of	perfor-
mance	in	their	career	was	mentioned	to	be	higher	due	to	their	global	upbringing.	Flexi-
bility	was	also	a	skill	learned	according	to	the	interviewees	mentioned	in	chapter	four.		
	
	Another	quality	developed	that	was	mentioned	amongst	the	interviewees	was	appreci-
ation	and	ability	to	adapt.	Simonsen	(2007)	states	that	“keeping	an	open	mind	to	new	
experiences	and	ways	of	 living	may	capacitate	us	 to	benefit	and	use	the	 intercultural	
experience	as	an	enriching	learning	experience”.	Openness	was	also	a	quality	that	was	
discussed	and	was	considered	to	have	been	developed	due	to	being	a	TCK.			
	
When	it	comes	to	creativity-related	benefits,	one	interviewee	mentioned	being	creative	
with	problem-solving	 skills	and	coming	up	with	new	 ideas	and	solutions	due	 to	 their	
experiences	as	TCKs.	This	is	supported	by	literature	as	Ju	Lee	et	al.,	(2007)	states	that	
“creative	 problem	 solving	 is	 crucial	 for	 children	 faced	 with	 growing	 up	 in	 cultural	
transition”.		
	
The	 third	objective	was	 to	 analyse	 the	 findings	of	 the	TCKs	 interviewed	and	how	 the	
positive	 impacts	 are	 visible	 now	 during	 their	 adult	 lives.	 Recruiters	 may	 look	 for	
employees	who	have	already	gained	the	experience	of	being	global	before	starting	at	a	
new	position.	Selmer	and	Lam	(2004)	state	that	“one	such	option	for	globalizing	firms	
could	be	to	focus	on	expatriate	candidates	who	already	have	acquired	a	global	mindset.	
A	potentially	promising	source	of	 recruitment	of	such	persons	could	be	 former	third-
culture	kids”.	Many	of	the	interviewees	considered	their	experiences	as	TCKs	to	be	the	
reason	 for	 their	 successful	 careers	 and	 position.	 The	 literature	 and	 interview	 results	
confirm	that	there	are	positive	impacts	that	are	visible	in	the	adult	years	of	the	TCKs.		
51	
Another	positive	impact	mentioned	by	the	interviewees	was	the	ability	to	be	accepting,	
understanding	 and	 open	 towards	 different	 cultures.	 This	 also	 supports	 literature,	 as	
Selmer	and	Lam	(2003)	mention	that	“TCKs'	third-cultureness	may	give	them	a	feeling	
of	belonging	to	the	world	at	large,	showing	agreement	and	openness	to	other	cultures	
in	general”.		
	
The	 last	 objective	 was	 to	 assess	 whether	 the	 theoretical	 framework	 supports	 the	
characteristics	 of	 TCKs	 interviewed	 and	 evaluate	 the	 approaches.	 The	 answer	 to	 this	
objective	 is	 that	 the	 theoretical	 framework	 does	 support	 the	 TCKs	 interviewed.	
Bonebright	 (2010)	 states	 that	 TCKs	 can	 handle	 change	 by	 being	 open	 and	 accepting	
towards	diverse	cultures	as	well	as	understanding	the	differences.	This	is	supported	by	
the	responses	of	the	interviewees,	as	most	of	the	participants	considered	themselves	
open,	accepting,	and	understanding	due	to	being	a	TCK.	Lastly,	Moore	and	Barker	(2012)	
conducted	 research	 on	 TCKs	 and	 the	 results	 showed	 “that	 they	 are	 competent	
intercultural	communicators	and	perceive	their	experiences	as	mainly	beneficial”.	This	
was	agreed	by	interviewees	as	well.		
	
To	conclude,	the	interview	results	support	the	literature	review	used	in	this	research.	All	
concepts	 were	 confirmed	 and	 extended	 from	 previous	 studies.	 Moreover,	 the	
propositions	 on	 this	 research	 made	 are	 therefore	 confirmed.	 This	 study	 provided	
evidence	 that	 there	are	many	advantages	and	benefits	of	growing	up	globally	with	a	
background	of	a	Third	Culture	Kid.	The	positive	outcomes	confirmed	were	being	creative,	
a	high	level	of	performance,	openness,	and	resilience.	Intercultural	competence	was	also	
confirmed,	 as	 all	 interviewees	 considered	 themselves	 able	 to	 interact	 with	 different	
cultures	and	be	accepting	towards	them.		
	
	
	
	
	
52	
6 Mangerial	implications	
The	following	chapter	will	provide	advice	for	organizations,	employees,	managers	as	well	
as	teachers	and	parents	based	on	the	results	of	this	study.	This	study	contributes	to	the	
literature	on	linking	Third	Culture	Kids	with	benefits	and	positive	outcomes	of	a	multi-
cultural	childhood.	Actions	that	can	benefit	organizations	and	companies	include	hiring	
multicultural	 employees	and	ensuring	diversity.	Additionally,	 diversity	 training	 to	em-
ployers	could	be	valuable	in	order	to	understand	the	positive	impacts	of	having	multicul-
turalism	in	a	team.	This	would	broaden	their	knowledge	on	cultural	diversity	and	the	
advantages	that	come	along	with	it.	Furthermore,	employees	could	make	use	of	the	skills	
that	TCKs	have,	as	from	this	research	it	is	evident	that	they	can	bring	a	lot	of	value	and	
competencies	into	a	team.	Mangers	could	give	challenging	tasks	and	responsibilities	to	
TCK	employees	and	utilize	their	knowledge	and	skills.	The	measurement	of	professional	
performance	between	TCKs	and	non-TCKs	could	also	be	evaluated	to	get	an	insight	on	
their	capabilities.		
	
Gunnestad	(2006)	states	that	“in	a	world	with	a	lot	of	interaction,	movement	of	people	
and	cultural	change,	it	is	important	to	understand	the	role	of	culture	in	the	well-being	
and	survival	of	people.	More	especially,	this	is	important	for	teachers	dealing	with	chil-
dren	who	are	in	the	process	of	accepting	and	recreating	their	own	culture”.	This	is	sig-
nificant	when	it	comes	to	developing	the	skill	of	resilience.		
	
Another	essential	implication	that	could	be	practised	include	schools,	institutions,	teach-
ers,	and	parents	becoming	educated	on	the	topic	of	Third	Culture	Kids.	Particularly	family	
expatriates	who	relocate	because	of	their	career	must	understand	the	concept	that	their	
children	will	face	and	grow	up	with.		
	
53	
7 Future	research	suggestions	
The	last	chapter	of	this	study	will	discuss	suggestions	for	future	research.	As	only	Third	
Culture	Kids	were	interviewed	in	this	research,	one	suggestion	for	future	research	could	
be	a	comparison	amongst	non-TCKs	and	TCKs	and	evaluate	whether	TCKs	have	more	
benefits	from	the	experience	in	their	adult	years	than	non-TCKs.	Another	suggestion	is	
to	 interview	current	expatriates	with	 families	and	what	 impacts	 they	have	noticed	 in	
themselves	and	their	children	whilst	living	a	mobile	lifestyle.	Additionally,	the	positive	
changes	and	other	benefits	could	be	researched.			
	
54	
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Appendices	
	
Appendix	1.	Interview	questions	
1. Where	were,	you	born?		
2. What	is	your	passport	country?		
3. Where	are	your	parents	from?		
4. Where	have	you	been	raised?		
5. What	languages	do	you	speak?		
6. What	is	your	current	position?		
7. What	kind	of	benefits	have	you	noticed	or	learnt	from	being	a	TCK?			
8. Has	it	improved	or	developed	your	creativity?		
9. How	has	being	a	TCK	affected	your	performance	professionally?		
10. Have	you	developed	openness	by	being	a	TCK?		
11. Do	you	consider	yourself	resilient	due	to	your	experiences	of	being	a	TCK?	
12. How	have	these	been	an	advantage	to	you	now	during	your	adult	life?		
13. Have	you	developed	intercultural	competence	from	your	experience?		
14. How	has	this	influenced	your	career	during	your	adult	life?		
15. Do	you	believe	your	experience	of	being	a	TCK	been	beneficial	and	had	a	positive	
impact	to	you	during	your	adult	years?	
16. Anything	else	you	would	like	to	add?		
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
70	
List	of	Figures	and	Tables	
Figure	1:	Byram's	model	of	intercultural	communicative	competence	(Byram,	1997)		
Figure	2:	Propositions	
	
Table	1:	Grotberg's	Model	of	Resilience	(1995)	
Table	2:	Participants	of	the	research		
Table	3:	Positive	aspects	of	being	a	TCK	by	Tayo	Rockson.